Hydrogen embrittlement (HE), also known as hydrogen-assisted cracking or hydrogen-induced cracking (HIC), is a reduction in the ductility of a metal due to absorbed hydrogen. Hydrogen atoms are small and can permeate solid metals. Once absorbed, hydrogen lowers the stress required for cracks in the metal to initiate and propagate, resulting in embrittlement. Hydrogen embrittlement occurs most notably in steels, as well as in iron, nickel, titanium, cobalt, and their alloys. Copper, aluminium, and stainless steels are less susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement.[1][2][3][4]
The essential facts about the nature of hydrogen embrittlement have been known since the 19th century.[5][6]
Hydrogen embrittlement is maximised at around room temperature in steels, and most metals are relatively immune to hydrogen embrittlement at temperatures above 150 °C.[7] Hydrogen embrittlement requires the presence of both atomic ("diffusible") hydrogen and a mechanical stress to induce crack growth, although that stress may be applied or residual.[2][8][9] Hydrogen embrittlement increases at lower strain rates.[1][2][10] In general, higher-strength steels are more susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement than mid-strength steels.[11]
Metals can be exposed to hydrogen from two types of sources: gaseous hydrogen and hydrogen chemically generated at the metal surface. Gaseous hydrogen is molecular hydrogen and does not cause embrittlement though it can cause hot hydrogen attack (see below). It is the atomic hydrogen from chemical attack which causes embrittlement because the atomic hydrogen dissolves quickly into the metal at room temperature.[6] Gaseous hydrogen is found in pressure vessels and pipelines. Electrochemical sources of hydrogen include acids (as may be encountered during pickling, etching, or cleaning), corrosion (typically due to aqueous corrosion or cathodic protection), and electroplating.[1][2] Hydrogen can be introduced into the metal during manufacturing by the presence of moisture during welding or while the metal is molten. The most common causes of failure in practice are poorly-controlled electroplating or damp welding rods.
Hydrogen embrittlement as a term can be used to refer specifically to the embrittlement that occurs in steels and similar metals at relatively low hydrogen concentrations, or it can be used to encompass all embrittling effects that hydrogen has on metals. These broader embrittling effects include hydride formation, which occurs in titanium and vanadium but not in steels, and hydrogen-induced blistering, which only occurs at high hydrogen concentrations and does not require the presence of stress.[10] However, hydrogen embrittlement is almost always distinguished from high temperature hydrogen attack (HTHA), which occurs in steels at temperatures above 204 °C and involves the formation of methane pockets.[12] The mechanisms (there are many) by which hydrogen causes embrittlement in steels are not comprehensively understood and continue to be explored and studied.[1][13][14]
^ abcdLynch, S. P. (2011-01-01), Raja, V. S.; Shoji, Tetsuo (eds.), "2 - Hydrogen embrittlement (HE) phenomena and mechanisms", Stress Corrosion Cracking, Woodhead Publishing Series in Metals and Surface Engineering, Woodhead Publishing, pp. 90–130, ISBN 978-1-84569-673-3, retrieved 2022-06-10
^ abcdCite error: The named reference nasa was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
^Jewett, R. P.; Walter, R. J.; Chandler, W. T.; Frohmberg, R. P. (1973-03-01). "Hydrogen environment embrittlement of metals". NTRS. NASA. Archived from the original on May 25, 2024.
^Safety Standard for Hydrogen and Hydrogen Systems: Guidelines for Hydrogen System Design, Materials Selection, Operations, Storage, and Transportation(PDF). Washington, DC: Office of Safety and Mission Assurance, National Aeronautics and Space Administration. 1997-10-29. p. A-93. NSS 1740.16. Retrieved 2022-06-27.
^Johnson, William H. (31 December 1875). "II. On some remarkable changes produced in iron and steel by the action of hydrogen and acids" (PDF). Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. 23 (156–163): 168–179. doi:10.1098/rspl.1874.0024. eISSN 2053-9126. ISSN 0370-1662. JSTOR 113285. S2CID 97579399 – via JSTOR.
^ abCite error: The named reference HarryB was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
^"What is hydrogen embrittlement? – Causes, effects and prevention". TWI - The Welding Institute. Retrieved 18 December 2020.
^Oriani, R A (August 1978). "Hydrogen Embrittlement of Steels". Annual Review of Materials Science. 8 (1): 327–357. Bibcode:1978AnRMS...8..327O. doi:10.1146/annurev.ms.08.080178.001551. ISSN 0084-6600.
^"Hydrogen Embrittlement". Metallurgy for Dummies. Retrieved 18 December 2020.
^ abLouthan, M. R. (2008-06-01). "Hydrogen Embrittlement of Metals: A Primer for the Failure Analyst". Journal of Failure Analysis and Prevention. 8 (3): 289–307. doi:10.1007/s11668-008-9133-x. ISSN 1864-1245. S2CID 51738408.
^Li, Hanyu; Niu, Ranming; Li, Wei; Lu, Hongzhou; Cairney, Julie; Chen, Yi-Sheng (September 2022). "Hydrogen in pipeline steels: Recent advances in characterization and embrittlement mitigation". Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering. 105: 104709. Bibcode:2022JNGSE.10504709L. doi:10.1016/j.jngse.2022.104709. S2CID 250713252.
^TWI – The Welding Institute. "What is high temperature hydrogen attack (HTHA) / hot hydrogen attack?". TWI - The Welding Institute. Retrieved 16 December 2020.
^Barnoush, Afrooz. "Hydrogen embrittlement revisited by in situ electrochemical nanoindentations" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-05-18. Retrieved 18 December 2020.
^Cite error: The named reference robertson15 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
and 28 Related for: Hydrogen embrittlement information
Hydrogenembrittlement (HE), also known as hydrogen-assisted cracking or hydrogen-induced cracking (HIC), is a reduction in the ductility of a metal due...
embrittlement. This is helpful for understanding hydrogenembrittlement (HE), as the diffusion of hydrogen through materials can be modeled. The embrittler...
exhibit phenomena such as stress corrosion cracking, hydrogenembrittlement, liquid metal embrittlement and corrosion fatigue all coming under this category...
the hydrogen molecule, hydrogen is able to leak through many apparently solid materials in a process called hydrogenembrittlement. Escaped hydrogen gas...
hydrogen) is not a problem for hydrogen gas pipelines. Hydrogenembrittlement only happens with 'diffusible' hydrogen, i.e. atoms or ions. Hydrogen gas...
elimination of hydrogen in a material to prevent hydrogenembrittlement. Hydrogenembrittlement is the hydrogen-induced cracking of metals, particularly steel...
hydrogen) is not a problem for hydrogen gas pipelines. Hydrogenembrittlement only happens with 'diffusible' hydrogen, i.e. atoms or ions. Hydrogen gas...
that can occur in bearing steels under certain conditions, such as hydrogenembrittlement, high stress, inadequate lubrication, and high temperature. WEC...
blistering and cracking of the cladding – a phenomenon known as hydrogenembrittlement. Commercial non-nuclear grade zirconium typically contains 1–5%...
nitrogen oxides. Hydrogen's interaction with metals may cause embrittlement. Hydrogen gas is highly flammable: 2 H2(g) + O2(g) → 2 H2O(l) (572 kJ/2 mol...
to be confused with hydrogenembrittlement. If a steel is exposed to very hot hydrogen, the high temperature enables the hydrogen molecules to dissociate...
Sulfide stress cracking (SSC) is a form of hydrogenembrittlement which is a cathodic cracking mechanism. It should not be confused with the term stress...
absorption of hydrogen and the formation of titanium hydride are a source of damage to titanium and titanium alloys. This hydrogenembrittlement process is...
water by decomposition of hydrogen or hydrogenPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback Hydrogenembrittlement – Reduction in ductility of...
The amount of hydrogen (H2) dissolved in weld metal: Dissolved hydrogen in the weld metal is related to hydrogenembrittlement. Hydrogen content can be...
large amounts of hydrogen could take up a lot of space if it is only compressed hydrogen and not Liquid hydrogen. Hydrogenembrittlement could happen in...
Sedmak, A.; Rajicic, B. (1 December 2015). "Hydrogen damage of steels: A case study and hydrogenembrittlement model". Engineering Failure Analysis. Recent...
combustion energy of hydrogen, and because it tends to leak easily from tanks due to its small molecular size. Hydrogenembrittlement is also a concern for...
Liquid metal embrittlement (also known as LME and liquid metal induced embrittlement) is a phenomenon of practical importance, where certain ductile metals...
stress fracture – Material failure Hydrogenembrittlement – Reduction in ductility of a metal exposed to hydrogen Ozone cracking – Cracks in many different...
material for holding pressurised hydrogen in tube trailers is steel (there is no hydrogenembrittlement problem with hydrogen gas). Tanks made of carbon and...
is easier to store than hydrogen due to its higher boiling point and density, as well as its lack of hydrogenembrittlement. The lower molecular weight...
Temperature-programmed reduction Hydrogen damage Hydrogenembrittlement Wikimedia Commons has media related to Hydrogen technologies. Energy portal Renewable...
problem, contributing to the embrittlement of many metals, complicating the design of pipelines and storage tanks. Hydrogen forms a vast array of compounds...
Global Information