Colorized scanning electron micrograph showing carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae interacting with a human neutrophil.
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The evolution of bacteria has progressed over billions of years since the Precambrian time with their first major divergence from the archaeal/eukaryotic lineage roughly 3.2-3.5 billion years ago.[1][2] This was discovered through gene sequencing of bacterial nucleoids to reconstruct their phylogeny. Furthermore, evidence of permineralized microfossils of early prokaryotes was also discovered in the Australian Apex Chert rocks, dating back roughly 3.5 billion years ago[3] during the time period known as the Precambrian time. This suggests that an organism in of the phylum Thermotogota (formerly Thermotogae)[4] was the most recent common ancestor of modern bacteria.
Further chemical and isotopic analysis of ancient rock reveals that by the Siderian period, roughly 2.45 billion years ago,[5] oxygen had appeared. This indicates that oceanic, photosynthetic cyanobacteria evolved during this period because they were the first microbes to produce oxygen as a byproduct of their metabolic process.[6] Therefore, this phylum was thought to have been predominant roughly 2.3 billion years ago. However, some scientists argue they could have lived as early as 2.7 billion years ago,[7] as this was roughly before the time of the Great Oxygenation Event, meaning oxygen levels had time to increase in the atmosphere before it altered the ecosystem during this event.
The rise in atmospheric oxygen led to the evolution of Pseudomonadota (formerly proteobacteria). Today this phylum includes many nitrogen fixing bacteria, pathogens, and free-living microorganisms. This phylum evolved approximately 1.5 billion years ago during the Paleoproterozoic era.[8]
However, there are still many conflicting theories surrounding the origins of bacteria. Even though microfossils of ancient bacteria have been discovered, some scientists argue that the lack of identifiable morphology in these fossils means they can not be utilised to draw conclusions on an accurate evolutionary timeline of bacteria. Nevertheless, more recent technological developments means more evidence has been discovered.
^Battistuzzi, Fabia U.; Feijao, Andreia; Hedges, S Blair (2004). "A genomic timescale of prokaryote evolution: Insights into the origin of methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the colonization of land". BMC Evolutionary Biology. 4: 44. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-44. PMC 533871. PMID 15535883.
^Brown, J R Doolittle, W F (December 1997). "Archaea and the prokaryote-to-eukaryote transition". Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews. 61 (4): 456–502. doi:10.1128/mmbr.61.4.456-502.1997. PMC 232621. PMID 9409149.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^"31. Ancient Life: Apex Chert Microfossils". www.lpi.usra.edu. Retrieved 2019-05-21.
^Di Giulio, Massimo (December 2003). "The Universal Ancestor and the Ancestor of Bacteria Were Hyperthermophiles". Journal of Molecular Evolution. 57 (6): 721–730. Bibcode:2003JMolE..57..721D. doi:10.1007/s00239-003-2522-6. PMID 14745541. S2CID 7041325.
^Zimmer, Carl (2013-10-03). "The Mystery of Earth's Oxygen". The New York Times. Retrieved 2019-05-21.
^"The Rise of Oxygen". Astrobiology Magazine. 2003-07-30. Archived from the original on 2015-09-06. Retrieved 2019-05-21.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
^"When Did Bacteria Appear?". Astrobiology Magazine. 2004-04-18. Archived from the original on 2019-01-12. Retrieved 2019-05-21.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
^Degli Esposti, Mauro (2014-11-27). "Bioenergetic Evolution in Proteobacteria and Mitochondria". Genome Biology and Evolution. 6 (12): 3238–3251. doi:10.1093/gbe/evu257. PMC 4986455. PMID 25432941.
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