Evidence for speciation by reinforcement information

Reinforcement is a process within speciation where natural selection increases the reproductive isolation between two populations of species by reducing the production of hybrids.^[1]^[2] Evidence for speciation by reinforcement has been gathered since the 1990s, and along with data from comparative studies and laboratory experiments, has overcome many of the objections to the theory.^[3]^: 354^[4]^[5] Differences in behavior or biology that inhibit formation of hybrid zygotes are termed prezygotic isolation. Reinforcement can be shown to be occurring (or to have occurred in the past) by measuring the strength of prezygotic isolation in a sympatric population in comparison to an allopatric population of the same species.^[3]^: 357 Comparative studies of this allow for determining large-scale patterns in nature across various taxa.^[3]^: 362 Mating patterns in hybrid zones can also be used to detect reinforcement.^[6] Reproductive character displacement is seen as a result of reinforcement,^[7] so many of the cases in nature express this pattern in sympatry. Reinforcement's prevalence is unknown,^[4] but the patterns of reproductive character displacement are found across numerous taxa (vertebrates, invertebrates, plants, and fungi), and is considered to be a common occurrence in nature.^[6] Studies of reinforcement in nature often prove difficult, as alternative explanations for the detected patterns can be asserted.^[3]^: 358 Nevertheless, empirical evidence exists for reinforcement occurring across various taxa^[7] and its role in precipitating speciation is conclusive.^[8]

^ Hannes Schuler, Glen R. Hood, Scott P. Egan, and Jeffrey L. Feder (2016), Meyers, Robert A (ed.), "Modes and Mechanisms of Speciation", Reviews in Cell Biology and Molecular Medicine, 2 (3): 60–93, doi:10.1002/3527600906, ISBN 9783527600908{{citation}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Jeremy L. Marshall, Michael L. Arnold, and Daniel J. Howard (2002), "Reinforcement: the road not taken", Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 17 (12): 558–563, doi:10.1016/S0169-5347(02)02636-8{{citation}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Jerry A. Coyne; H. Allen Orr (2004), Speciation, Sinauer Associates, pp. 1–545, ISBN 978-0-87893-091-3
^ ^a ^b Maria R. Servedio; Mohamed A. F. Noor (2003), "The Role of Reinforcement in Speciation: Theory and Data", Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics, 34: 339–364, doi:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.34.011802.132412
^ Daniel Ortíz-Barrientos, Alicia Grealy, and Patrik Nosil (2009), "The Genetics and Ecology of Reinforcement: Implications for the Evolution of Prezygotic Isolation in Sympatry and Beyond", Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1168: 156–182, doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.04919.x, PMID 19566707, S2CID 4598270{{citation}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ ^a ^b Daniel J. Howard (1993). Reinforcement: origin, dynamics and fate of an evolutionary hypothesis. In: Harrison, R. G. (eds) Hybrid Zones and the Evolutionary Process, Oxford University Press, pp. 46–69.
^ ^a ^b Mohamed A. F. Noor (1999), "Reinforcement and other consequences of sympatry", Heredity, 83 (5): 503–508, doi:10.1038/sj.hdy.6886320, PMID 10620021
^ Glenn-Peter Sætre (2012). "Reinforcement". Encyclopedia of Life Sciences. doi:10.1002/9780470015902.a0001754.pub3. ISBN 978-0470016176. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)

[Modes_and_Mechanisms_of_Speciation-1] Hannes Schuler, Glen R. Hood, Scott P. Egan, and Jeffrey L. Feder (2016), Meyers, Robert A (ed.), "Modes and Mechanisms of Speciation", Reviews in Cell Biology and Molecular Medicine, 2 (3): 60–93, doi:10.1002/3527600906, ISBN 9783527600908{{citation}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Marshalletal2002-2] Jeremy L. Marshall, Michael L. Arnold, and Daniel J. Howard (2002), "Reinforcement: the road not taken", Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 17 (12): 558–563, doi:10.1016/S0169-5347(02)02636-8{{citation}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Speciation-3] Jerry A. Coyne; H. Allen Orr (2004), Speciation, Sinauer Associates, pp. 1–545, ISBN 978-0-87893-091-3

[Servedio&Noor-4] Maria R. Servedio; Mohamed A. F. Noor (2003), "The Role of Reinforcement in Speciation: Theory and Data", Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics, 34: 339–364, doi:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.34.011802.132412

[Barrientos2009-5] Daniel Ortíz-Barrientos, Alicia Grealy, and Patrik Nosil (2009), "The Genetics and Ecology of Reinforcement: Implications for the Evolution of Prezygotic Isolation in Sympatry and Beyond", Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1168: 156–182, doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.04919.x, PMID 19566707, S2CID 4598270{{citation}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Howard1993-6] Daniel J. Howard (1993). Reinforcement: origin, dynamics and fate of an evolutionary hypothesis. In: Harrison, R. G. (eds) Hybrid Zones and the Evolutionary Process, Oxford University Press, pp. 46–69.

[Noor1999-7] Mohamed A. F. Noor (1999), "Reinforcement and other consequences of sympatry", Heredity, 83 (5): 503–508, doi:10.1038/sj.hdy.6886320, PMID 10620021

[eLS2012-8] Glenn-Peter Sætre (2012). "Reinforcement". Encyclopedia of Life Sciences. doi:10.1002/9780470015902.a0001754.pub3. ISBN 978-0470016176. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)

Evidence for speciation by reinforcement information

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Evidence for speciation by reinforcement

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