Global InformationCircumcision controversies information
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Male circumcision has been a subject of controversy for a number of reasons including religious, ethical, sexual, and medical.[1][2][3][4][5]
During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, in a rapidly changing medical and surgical world, circumcision rose in popularity as a primitive means of prophylaxis in the Anglosphere.[6] Its primary justification was to promote cleanliness,[7][8][9] as well as reducing and preventing the incidence of disease.[10][11][12] Many medical professionals and advocates of the procedure also believed that it would reduce pleasure and the urge to masturbate, which was considered a social ill of the era.[1][4][13][11][9]
Modern proponents say that circumcision reduces the risks of a range of infections and diseases and confers sexual benefits.[1][14][4][2][15] By contrast, some opponents, particularly of routine neonatal circumcision, question its preventive efficacy and object to subjecting non-consenting newborn males to a procedure that is potentially harmful, in their view, with little to no benefit, as well as violating their human rights and possibly negatively impacting their sex life.[1][2][4][5][3][16][17][18][19]
In Classical and Hellenistic civilization, Ancient Greeks and Romans posed great value on the beauty of nature, physical integrity, aesthetics, harmonious bodies and nudity, including the foreskin[19][20][21] (see also Ancient Greek art), and were opposed to circumcision, an opposition inherited by the canon and secular legal systems of the Christian West and East that lasted at least through to the Middle Ages, according to Frederick Hodges.[19] Traditional branches of Judaism, Islam, Coptic Christianity, the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, and the Eritrean Orthodox Church still advocate male circumcision as a religious obligation.[22]
- ^ a b c d Still, Hereford (January 1972). "Circumcision — An Outdated and Unnecessary Procedure?". Canadian Family Physician. 18 (1). College of Family Physicians of Canada: 51–52. PMC 2370328. PMID 20468719.
- ^ a b c Lukong, C. S. (December 2011). "Circumcision: Controversies and Prospects". Journal of Surgical Technique and Case Report. 3 (2). Sokoto: Usmanu Danfodiyo University Teaching Hospital: 65–66. doi:10.4103/2006-8808.92795. PMC 3296435. PMID 22413046.
- ^ a b Denniston, George C.; Grassivaro Gallo, Pia; Hodges, Frederick M.; Milos, Marilyn Fayre; Viviani, Franco, eds. (2006). Bodily Integrity and the Politics of Circumcision: Culture, Controversy, and Change. New York: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-1-4020-4915-6.
- ^ a b c d Wallerstein, Edward (February 1985). "Circumcision: The Uniquely American Medical Enigma". Urologic Clinics of North America. 12 (1): 123–132. doi:10.1016/S0094-0143(21)00798-9. PMID 3883617. Archived from the original on 20 February 2014. Retrieved 4 January 2020.
- ^ a b Hutson, J. M. (June 2004). "Circumcision: a surgeon's perspective". Journal of Medical Ethics. 30 (3). BMJ Group: 238–40. doi:10.1136/jme.2002.001313. PMC 1733864. PMID 15173354.
- ^ Cite error: The named reference
:1was invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ Gollaher, David; Page 106 (2001). Circumcision: A History of the World's Most Controversial Surgery. Basic Books. ISBN 9780465026531.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)[permanent dead link] - ^ Cite error: The named reference
Hutchinsonwas invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ a b Remondino, Peter Charles (1891). History Of Circumcision. pp. 187.
- ^ Hutchinson, Johnathan (1855). ""On the influence of circumcision in preventing syphilis"". Medical Times and Gazette. pp. 32: 542–543.
- ^ a b Darby, Robert (2005). A Surgical Temptation: The Demonization of the Foreskin and the Rise of Circumcision in Britain. London: University of Chicago Press. pp. 44–214. ISBN 978-0-226-13645-5.
- ^ Chubak, Barbara (2013). "1101 the Orthopedic Origin of Popular Male Circumcision in America". American Urological Association. 189 (4S). doi:10.1016/j.juro.2013.02.693.
- ^ Darby, Robert (Spring 2003). "The Masturbation Taboo and the Rise of Routine Male Circumcision: A Review of the Historiography". Journal of Social History. 36 (3). Fairfax County, Virginia: George Mason University Press: 737–757. doi:10.1353/jsh.2003.0047. S2CID 72536074. Archived from the original on 28 April 2019. Retrieved 4 January 2020.
- ^ Society, Canadian Paediatric. "Newborn male circumcision | Canadian Paediatric Society". cps.ca. Retrieved 5 June 2023.
- ^ "Newborn Male Circumcision". American Academy of Pediatrics. 27 August 2012. Archived from the original on 7 November 2017. Retrieved 11 August 2019.
- ^ Aigrain, Yves; Barauskas, Vidmantas; Bjarnason, Ragnar; Boddy, Su-Anna; Czauderna, Piotr; de Gier, Robert P.E.; de Jong, Tom P.V.M.; Fasching, Günter; Fetter, Willem; Gahr, Manfred; Graugaard, Christian; Greisen, Gorm; Gunnarsdottir, Anna; Hartmann, Wolfram; Havranek, Petr; Hitchcock, Rowena; Huddart, Simon; Janson, Staffan; Jaszczak, Poul; Kupferschmid, Christoph; Lahdes-Vasama, Tuija; Lindahl, Harry; MacDonald, Noni; Markestad, Trond; Märtson, Matis; Nordhov, Solveig Marianne; Pälve, Heikki; Petersons, Aigars; Quinn, Feargal; Qvist, Niels; Rosmundsson, Thrainn; Saxen, Harri; Söder, Olle; Stehr, Maximilian; von Loewenich, Volker C.H.; Wallander, Johan; Wijnen, Rene (April 2013). Frisch, Morten (ed.). "Cultural Bias in the AAP's 2012 Technical Report and Policy Statement on Male Circumcision" (PDF). Pediatrics. 131 (4). American Academy of Pediatrics: 796–800. doi:10.1542/peds.2012-2896. PMID 23509170. S2CID 40444911. Archived from the original on 6 January 2020. Retrieved 4 January 2020.
- ^ Warren, John (2010). "Physical Effects of Circumcision". In Denniston, George C.; Hodges, Frederick M.; Milos, Marilyn Fayre (eds.). Genital Autonomy: Protecting Personal Choice. New York: Springer-Verlag. pp. 75–79. doi:10.1007/978-90-481-9446-9_7. ISBN 978-90-481-9446-9. Archived from the original on 6 August 2020. Retrieved 19 November 2019.
- ^ Svoboda, J. Steven (July 2013). "Circumcision of male infants as a human rights violation". Journal of Medical Ethics. 39 (7): 469–474. doi:10.1136/medethics-2012-101229. ISSN 1473-4257. PMID 23698885. S2CID 7461936.
- ^ a b c Hodges, Frederick M. (2001). "The Ideal Prepuce in Ancient Greece and Rome: Male Genital Aesthetics and Their Relation to Lipodermos, Circumcision, Foreskin Restoration, and the Kynodesme" (PDF). Bulletin of the History of Medicine. 75 (Fall 2001). Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press: 375–405. doi:10.1353/bhm.2001.0119. PMID 11568485. S2CID 29580193. Archived from the original on 20 November 2018. Retrieved 24 April 2021.
- ^ Kennedy, Amanda (Spring 2015). "Masculinity and Embodiment in the Practice of Foreskin Restoration". International Journal of Men's Health. 14 (1): 38–54. doi:10.3149/jmh.1401.38 (inactive 31 January 2024). eISSN 1933-0278. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 December 2019. Retrieved 22 July 2020.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of January 2024 (link) - ^ Neusner, Jacob (1993). Approaches to Ancient Judaism, New Series: Religious and Theological Studies. Scholars Press. p. 149.
Circumcised barbarians, along with any others who revealed the glans penis, were the butt of ribald humor. For Greek art portrays the foreskin, often drawn in meticulous detail, as an emblem of male beauty; and children with congenitally short foreskins were sometimes subjected to a treatment, known as epispasm, that was aimed at elongation.
- ^ N. Stearns, Peter (2008). The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern World. Oxford University Press. p. 179. ISBN 9780195176322.
Uniformly practiced by Jews, Muslims, and the members of Coptic, Ethiopian, and Eritrean Orthodox Churches, male circumcision remains prevalent in many regions of the world, particularly Africa, South and East Asia, Oceania, and Anglosphere countries.