Mongolian religious practice under the system of Genghis Khan
Persian miniature showing Ghazan's conversion from Buddhism to Islam
The Mongols were highly tolerant of most religions during the early Mongol Empire, and typically sponsored several at the same time. At the time of Genghis Khan in the 13th century, virtually every religion had found converts, from Buddhism to Eastern Christianity and Manichaeanism to Islam. To avoid strife, Genghis Khan set up an institution that ensured complete religious freedom, though he himself was a Tengrist. Under his administration, all religious leaders were exempt from taxation, and from public service.[1] Mongol emperors were known for organizing competitions of religious debates among clerics, and these would draw large audiences.
Genghis Khan's decree exempting Buddhists (toyin), Christians (erke'üd), Taoists (xiansheng) and Muslims (dashmad) from tax duties were continued by his successors until the end of the Yuan dynasty in 1368. According to Atwood, all the decrees use the same formula and stated that Genghis Khan first gave the decree of exemption. A well preserved example is found in Kublai Khan's 1261 decree in Mongolian appointing the elder of the Shaolin Monastery.[2][note 1]
According to Juvaini, Genghis Khan allowed religious freedom to Muslims during his conquest of Khwarezmia "permitting the recitation of the takbir and the azan". However, Rashid-al-Din states there were occasions when Genghis Khan forbade Halal butchering. Kublai Khan revived the decree in 1280 after Muslims refused to eat at a banquet. He forbade Halal butchering and circumcision. The decree of Kublai Khan was revoked after a decade. Genghis Khan met Wahid-ud-Din in Afghanistan in 1221 and asked him if the Islamic prophet Muhammad predicted a Mongol conqueror. He was initially pleased with Wahid-ud-Din but then dismissed him from his service saying "I used to consider you a wise and prudent man, but from this speech of yours, it has become evident to me that you do not possess complete understanding and that your comprehension is but small".[3]
Initially, there were few normal places of worship, because of the nomadic lifestyle. However, under Genghis's successor Ögedei, several building projects were undertaken in the Mongol capital of Karakorum. Along with palaces, Ogedei built houses of worship for the Buddhist, Muslim, Christian, and Taoist followers. The dominant religions at that time were Tengrism and Buddhism, although Ögedei's wife was a Christian.[4] In later years of the empire, three of the four principal khanates embraced Islam, as Islam was favored over other religions.[5][6][7] The Yuan dynasty mainly adopted Tibetan Buddhism while there were other religions practiced in the east of the Mongol Empire.
^Weatherford 2004, p. 69.
^ abAtwood 2004, p. 239.
^Atwood 2004, pp. 246–248.
^Weatherford 2004, p. 135.
^Encyclopedia 1920, p. 680.
^Ezzati 2002, p. 274.
^Bukharaev 2000, p. 145.
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