Global InformationNeutrino information
 The first use of a hydrogen bubble chamber to detect neutrinos, on 13 November 1970, at Argonne National Laboratory. Here a neutrino hits a proton in a hydrogen atom; the collision occurs at the point where three tracks emanate on the right of the photograph. | |
| Composition | Elementary particle |
|---|---|
| Statistics | Fermionic |
| Family | Leptons, antileptons |
| Generation | First ( ν e), second ( ν μ), and third ( ν τ) |
| Interactions | Weak interaction and gravitation |
| Symbol | ν e , ν μ , ν τ , ν e , ν μ , ν τ |
| Particle | spin: ±+ 1 /2ħ, chirality: Left, weak isospin: + 1 /2, lepton nr.: +1, "flavour" in { e, μ, τ } |
| Antiparticle | spin: ±+ 1 /2ħ, chirality: Right, weak isospin: − 1 /2, lepton nr.: −1, "flavour" in { e, μ, τ } |
| Theorized |
|
| Discovered |
|
| Types | 3 types: electron neutrino ( ν e), muon neutrino ( ν μ), and tau neutrino ( ν τ) |
| Mass | < 0.120 eV (< 2.14 × 10−37 kg), 95% confidence level, sum of 3 "flavours"[1] |
| Electric charge | 0 e |
| Spin | 1 /2ℏ |
| Weak isospin | LH: + 1 /2, RH: 0 |
| Weak hypercharge | LH: −1, RH: 0 |
| B − L | −1 |
| X | −3 |
A neutrino (/njuːˈtriːnoʊ/ new-TREE-noh; denoted by the Greek letter ν) is a fermion (an elementary particle with spin of 1 /2) that interacts only via the weak interaction and gravity.[2][3] The neutrino is so named because it is electrically neutral and because its rest mass is so small (-ino) that it was long thought to be zero. The rest mass of the neutrino is much smaller than that of the other known elementary particles (excluding massless particles).[1] The weak force has a very short range, the gravitational interaction is extremely weak due to the very small mass of the neutrino, and neutrinos do not participate in the electromagnetic interaction or the strong interaction.[4] Thus, neutrinos typically pass through normal matter unimpeded and undetected.[2][3]
Weak interactions create neutrinos in one of three leptonic flavors:
- electron neutrino,
ν
e - muon neutrino,
ν
μ - tau neutrino,
ν
τ
Each flavor is associated with the correspondingly named charged lepton.[5] Although neutrinos were long believed to be massless, it is now known that there are three discrete neutrino masses with different tiny values (the smallest of which could even be zero[6]), but the three masses do not uniquely correspond to the three flavors: A neutrino created with a specific flavor is a specific mixture of all three mass states (a quantum superposition). Similar to some other neutral particles, neutrinos oscillate between different flavors in flight as a consequence. For example, an electron neutrino produced in a beta decay reaction may interact in a distant detector as a muon or tau neutrino.[7][8] The three mass values are not yet known as of 2024, but laboratory experiments and cosmological observations have determined the differences of their squares,[9] an upper limit on their sum (< 2.14×10−37 kg),[1][10] and an upper limit on the mass of the electron neutrino.[11]
For each neutrino, there also exists a corresponding antiparticle, called an antineutrino, which also has spin of 1 /2 and no electric charge. Antineutrinos are distinguished from neutrinos by having opposite-signed lepton number and weak isospin, and right-handed instead of left-handed chirality. To conserve total lepton number (in nuclear beta decay), electron neutrinos only appear together with positrons (anti-electrons) or electron-antineutrinos, whereas electron antineutrinos only appear with electrons or electron neutrinos.[12][13]
Neutrinos are created by various radioactive decays; the following list is not exhaustive, but includes some of those processes:
- beta decay of atomic nuclei or hadrons
- natural nuclear reactions such as those that take place in the core of a star
- artificial nuclear reactions in nuclear reactors, nuclear bombs, or particle accelerators
- during a supernova
- during the spin-down of a neutron star
- when cosmic rays or accelerated particle beams strike atoms
The majority of neutrinos which are detected about the Earth are from nuclear reactions inside the Sun. At the surface of the Earth, the flux is about 65 billion (6.5×1010) solar neutrinos, per second per square centimeter.[14][15] Neutrinos can be used for tomography of the interior of the Earth.[16][17]
- ^ a b c Mertens, Susanne (2016). "Direct neutrino mass experiments". Journal of Physics: Conference Series. 718 (2): 022013. arXiv:1605.01579. Bibcode:2016JPhCS.718b2013M. doi:10.1088/1742-6596/718/2/022013. S2CID 56355240.
- ^ a b Close, Frank (2010). Neutrinos (softcover ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-199-69599-7.
- ^ a b Jayawardhana, Ray (2015). The Neutrino Hunters: The chase for the ghost particle and the secrets of the universe (softcover ed.). Oneworld Publications. ISBN 978-1-780-74647-0.
- ^ Overbye, Dennis (15 April 2020). "Why the Big Bang produced something rather than nothing – How did matter gain the edge over antimatter in the early universe? Maybe, just maybe, neutrinos". The New York Times. Retrieved 16 April 2020.
- ^ Nakamura, Kengo; Petcov, Serguey Todorov (2016). "Neutrino mass, mixing, and oscillations" (PDF). Chinese Physics C. 40: 100001.
- ^ Boyle, Latham; Finn, Kiernan; Turok, Neil (2022). "The Big Bang, CPT, and neutrino dark matter". Annals of Physics. 438: 168767. arXiv:1803.08930. Bibcode:2022AnPhy.43868767B. doi:10.1016/j.aop.2022.168767. S2CID 119252778.
- ^ Grossman, Yuval; Lipkin, Harry J. (1997). "Flavor oscillations from a spatially localized source — A simple general treatment". Physical Review D. 55 (5): 2760. arXiv:hep-ph/9607201. Bibcode:1997PhRvD..55.2760G. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.55.2760. S2CID 9032778.
- ^ Bilenky, Samoil M. (2016). "Neutrino oscillations: From a historical perspective to the present status". Nuclear Physics B. 908: 2–13. arXiv:1602.00170. Bibcode:2016NuPhB.908....2B. doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysb.2016.01.025. S2CID 119220135.
- ^ Capozzi, Francesco; Lisi, Eligio; Marrone, Antonio; Montanino, Daniele; Palazzo, Antonio (2016). "Neutrino masses and mixings: Status of known and unknown 3ν parameters". Nuclear Physics B. 908: 218–234. arXiv:1601.07777. Bibcode:2016NuPhB.908..218C. doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysb.2016.02.016. S2CID 119292028.
- ^ Olive, Keith A.; et al. (Particle Data Group) (2016). "Sum of neutrino masses" (PDF). Chinese Physics C. 40 (10): 100001. Bibcode:2016ChPhC..40j0001P. doi:10.1088/1674-1137/40/10/100001. S2CID 125766528.
- ^ Cite error: The named reference
KATRIN-2022-NatPhyswas invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ "Ghostlike neutrinos". particlecentral.com. Scottsdale, AZ: Four Peaks Technologies. Retrieved 24 April 2016.
- ^ "Conservation of lepton number". HyperPhysics / particles. Georgia State University. Retrieved 24 April 2016.
- ^ Armitage, Philip (2003). "Solar neutrinos" (PDF). JILA. Boulder, CO: University of Colorado. Retrieved 24 April 2016.
- ^ Bahcall, John N.; Serenelli, Aldo M.; Basu, Sarbani (2005). "New solar opacities, abundances, helioseismology, and neutrino fluxes". The Astrophysical Journal. 621 (1): L85–L88. arXiv:astro-ph/0412440. Bibcode:2005ApJ...621L..85B. doi:10.1086/428929. S2CID 1374022.
- ^ Millhouse, Margaret A.; Lipkin, David C. (2013). "Neutrino tomography". American Journal of Physics. 81 (9): 646–654. Bibcode:2013AmJPh..81..646M. doi:10.1119/1.4817314.
- ^ Aartsen, M. G.; et al. (The IceCube-PINGU Collaboration) (2014). The Precision IceCube Next Generation Upgrade (PINGU) (Report). Letter of Intent. arXiv:1401.2046.