"Ethnicity and health" and "medical racism" redirect here. For the peer-reviewed journal, see Ethnicity & Health. For the 2021 film, see Medical Racism: The New Apartheid.
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Race and health refers to how being identified with a specific race influences health. Race is a complex concept that has changed across chronological eras and depends on both self-identification and social recognition.[1] In the study of race and health, scientists organize people in racial categories depending on different factors such as: phenotype, ancestry, social identity, genetic makeup and lived experience. "Race" and ethnicity often remain undifferentiated in health research.[2][3]
Differences in health status, health outcomes, life expectancy, and many other indicators of health in different racial and ethnic groups are well documented.[4] Epidemiological data indicate that racial groups are unequally affected by diseases, in terms or morbidity and mortality.[5] Some individuals in certain racial groups receive less care, have less access to resources, and live shorter lives in general.[6] Overall, racial health disparities appear to be rooted in social disadvantages associated with race such as implicit stereotyping and average differences in socioeconomic status.[7][8][9]
Health disparities are defined as "preventable differences in the burden of disease, injury, violence, or opportunities to achieve optimal health that are experienced by socially disadvantaged populations".[10] According to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, they are intrinsically related to the "historical and current unequal distribution of social, political, economic and environmental resources".[10][11]
The relationship between race and health has been studied from multidisciplinary perspectives, with increasing focus on how racism influences health disparities, and how environmental and physiological factors respond to one another and to genetics.[7][8]
^Liebler CA, Porter SR, Fernandez LE, Noon JM, Ennis SR (February 2017). "America's Churning Races: Race and Ethnicity Response Changes Between Census 2000 and the 2010 Census". Demography. 54 (1): 259–284. doi:10.1007/s13524-016-0544-0. PMC 5514561. PMID 28105578.
^Attina TM, Malits J, Naidu M, Trasande L (December 2018). "Racial/Ethnic Disparities in Disease Burden and Costs Related to Exposure to Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals in the US: an Exploratory Analysis". Journal of Clinical Epidemiology. 108: 34–43. doi:10.1016/j.jclinepi.2018.11.024. PMC 6455970. PMID 30529005.
^Walker RJ, Strom Williams J, Egede LE (April 2016). "Influence of Race, Ethnicity and Social Determinants of Health on Diabetes Outcomes". The American Journal of the Medical Sciences. 351 (4): 366–73. doi:10.1016/j.amjms.2016.01.008. PMC 4834895. PMID 27079342.
^Goodman AH, Moses YT, Jones JL (2012). Race: are we so different?. Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-118-23317-7. OCLC 822025003.
^Rogers RG, Lawrence EM, Hummer RA, Tilstra AM (2017-07-03). "Racial/Ethnic Differences in Early-Life Mortality in the United States". Biodemography and Social Biology. 63 (3): 189–205. doi:10.1080/19485565.2017.1281100. PMC 5729754. PMID 29035105.
^Spalter-Roth RM, Lowenthal TA, Rubio M (July 2005). "Race, Ethnicity, and the Health of Americans" (PDF). American Sociological Association.
^ abWilliams DR (July 1997). "Race and health: basic questions, emerging directions". Annals of Epidemiology. 7 (5): 322–33. doi:10.1016/S1047-2797(97)00051-3. PMID 9250627.
^ abPenner LA, Hagiwara N, Eggly S, Gaertner SL, Albrecht TL, Dovidio JF (December 2013). "Racial Healthcare Disparities: A Social Psychological Analysis". European Review of Social Psychology. 24 (1): 70–122. doi:10.1080/10463283.2013.840973. PMC 4151477. PMID 25197206.
^Hofrichter R, ed. (2003). Health and Social Justice: Politics, Ideology, and Inequity in the Distribution of Disease. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. pp. 105–106. ISBN 978-0-7879-6733-8.
^ ab"Disparities | Adolescent and School Health |". U.S. Centers for Disease Control. 2018-08-17. Retrieved 2018-12-14.
^World Health Organization. The determinants of health. Geneva. Accessed 12 May 2011 (which are inter-related with all three, but mostly social factors).
Raceandhealth refers to how being identified with a specific race influences health. Race is a complex concept that has changed across chronological...
thoughtful and theoretically sound rationale for the inclusion of race or ethnicity variables in health research, aligning with the understanding of race as a...
of Black maternal death. Race affects maternal health throughout the pregnancy continuum, beginning prior to conception and continuing through pregnancy...
allegations. The whippings deeply traumatized Jackson and may have led to the onset of further health problems later in his life. Physicians speculated that...
(1993). Race & Health in Contemporary Britain. Open University Press; 1st edition (1 October 1993). ISBN 978-0335156979. "1965: New UK race law 'not...
raceand intelligence – specifically regarding claims of differences in intelligence along racial lines – have appeared in both popular science and academic...
study conducted between 1932 and 1972 by the United States Public Health Service (PHS) and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) on a group...
determinants of mental health (SDOMH) are societal problems that disrupt mental health, increase risk of mental illness among certain groups, and worsen outcomes...
gender, race, economics, education, employment, housing, and food access/security. There is debate about which of these are most important. Health starts...
relationship, competing in a race around the Americas to win US$1,000,000. This season visited two continents and eight countries and traveled over 11,711 miles...
Religion, and Childbearing in a Multiracial Society, pages 274, Elsevier Health Sciences, 1996, ISBN 0750620501 Raj S. Bhopal, Ethnicity, race, andhealth in...
on the race data obtained from the decennial census (i.e., promoting equal employment opportunities; assessing racial disparities in healthand environmental...
Poverty andhealth are intertwined in the United States. As of 2019, 10.5% of Americans were considered in poverty, according to the U.S. Government's...
The United States has a racially and ethnically diverse population. At the federal level, raceand ethnicity have been categorized separately. The most...
Caucasian race (also Caucasoid, Europid, or Europoid) is an obsolete racial classification of humans based on a now-disproven theory of biological race. The...
a Racially Profiling Doctor Weathering hypothesis Maternal HealthRaceand maternal health in the United States "Maternal Mortality". www.cdc.gov. October...
Confederation for Healthand Social Care Welsh NHS Confederation NHS European Office NHS Employers organisation NHS RaceandHealth Observatory NHS Providers...
Occupational safety andhealth (OSH) or occupational healthand safety (OHS) is a multidisciplinary field concerned with the safety, health, and welfare of people...
Discrimination and Redlining in Cities" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on November 30, 2007. Retrieved February 16, 2013. See: Raceandhealth Eisenhauer...
and that their descendants up to the present day constitute either a distinctive race or a sub-race of the Caucasian race, alongside the Semitic race...
Researchers have investigated the relationship between raceand genetics as part of efforts to understand how biology may or may not contribute to human...
this usage include "health coverage", "health care coverage", and "health benefits". In a more technical sense, the term "health insurance" is used to...
Americans or mixed-race Americans are Americans who have mixed ancestry of two or more races. The term may also include Americans of mixed-race ancestry who...
Population genetics Race (human categorization) Raceand ethnicity in censuses Raceand ethnicity in the United States Census Raceandhealth Segmentary lineage...
Pamela (December 2010). "Raceand Psychological Distress: The South African Stress andHealth Study". Journal of Healthand Social Behavior. 51 (4): 458–477...
with another race. People who identified as white alone (including Hispanic whites) numbered 204,277,273 or 61.6% of the population and Non-Latino whites...
by age, sex, race, and Hispanic origin. Differing at the regional and state levels, educational attainment data are shown by sex, race, and Hispanic origin...
what? Inappropriate labeling in research on race, ethnicity, andhealth". American Journal of Public Health. 88 (9): 1303–1307. doi:10.2105/ajph.88.9.1303...
on race or by unconscious bias is not widely agreed upon. In a modern context, medical racism and its history has created a deep distrust of health professionals...
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