Global InformationRace and crime in the United States information
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In the United States, the relationship between race and crime has been a topic of public controversy and scholarly debate for more than a century.[1] Crime rates vary significantly between racial groups; however, academic research indicates that the over-representation of some racial minorities in the criminal justice system can in part be explained by socioeconomic factors,[2][3] such as poverty,[4][5] exposure to poor neighborhoods,[6] poor access to public and early education,[7] and exposure to harmful chemicals (such as lead) and pollution.[8] Racial housing segregation has also been linked to racial disparities in crime rates, as blacks have historically and to the present been prevented from moving into prosperous low-crime areas through actions of the government (such as redlining) and private actors.[9][10][11] Various explanations within criminology have been proposed for racial disparities in crime rates, including conflict theory, strain theory, general strain theory, social disorganization theory, macrostructural opportunity theory, social control theory, and subcultural theory.
Research also indicates that there is extensive racial and ethnic discrimination by police and the judicial system.[12][13][14][15] A substantial academic literature has compared police searches (showing that contraband is found at higher rates in whites who are stopped), bail decisions (showing that whites with the same bail decision as blacks commit more pre-trial violations), and sentencing (showing that blacks are more harshly sentenced by juries and judges than whites when the underlying facts and circumstances of the cases are similar), providing valid causal inferences of racial discrimination.[16][17][18][19] Studies have documented patterns of racial discrimination, as well as patterns of police brutality and disregard for the constitutional rights of African-Americans, by police departments in various American cities, including Los Angeles, New York, Chicago, and Philadelphia.[20][21][22][23][24]
- ^ Gabbidon & Greene (2005a:ix-x); Gabbidon & Greene (2005b:37).
- ^ Krivo, Lauren J.; Peterson, Ruth D. (2000). "The Structural Context of Homicide: Accounting for Racial Differences in Process". American Sociological Review. 65 (4): 547–559. doi:10.2307/2657382. ISSN 0003-1224. JSTOR 2657382.
- ^ Ulmer, Jeffery T.; Harris, Casey T.; Steffensmeier, Darrell (2012). "Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Structural Disadvantage and Crime: White, Black, and Hispanic Comparisons*". Social Science Quarterly. 93 (3): 799–819. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6237.2012.00868.x. ISSN 1540-6237. PMC 4097310. PMID 25035523.
- ^ Brown, Elizabeth; Males, Mike A. (2011). "Does Age or Poverty Level Best Predict Criminal Arrest and Homicide Rates? A Preliminary Investigation". S2CID 14751824.
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - ^ Sampson, Robert J. (September 1987). "Urban Black Violence: The Effect of Male Joblessness and Family Disruption". American Journal of Sociology. 93 (2): 348–382. doi:10.1086/228748. JSTOR 2779588. S2CID 144729803.
- ^ Shihadeh, Edward S.; Shrum, Wesley (July 1, 2004). "Serious Crime in Urban Neighborhoods: Is There a Race Effect?". Sociological Spectrum. 24 (4): 507–533. doi:10.1080/02732170490459502. ISSN 0273-2173. S2CID 145654909.
- ^ Light, Michael T.; Ulmer, Jeffery T. (April 1, 2016). "Explaining the Gaps in White, Black, and Hispanic Violence since 1990: Accounting for Immigration, Incarceration, and Inequality". American Sociological Review. 81 (2): 290–315. doi:10.1177/0003122416635667. ISSN 0003-1224. S2CID 53346960.
- ^ Boutwell, Brian B.; Nelson, Erik J.; Emo, Brett; Vaughn, Michael G.; Schootman, Mario; Rosenfeld, Richard; Lewis, Roger (July 1, 2016). "The intersection of aggregate-level lead exposure and crime". Environmental Research. 148: 79–85. Bibcode:2016ER....148...79B. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2016.03.023. ISSN 0013-9351. PMID 27035924.
- ^ Feldmeyer, Ben (September 1, 2010). "The Effects of Racial/Ethnic Segregation on Latino and Black Homicide". The Sociological Quarterly. 51 (4): 600–623. doi:10.1111/j.1533-8525.2010.01185.x. ISSN 0038-0253. PMID 20939127. S2CID 19551967.
- ^ O’Flaherty, Brendan; Sethi, Rajiv (November 1, 2007). "Crime and segregation". Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization. 64 (3): 391–405. doi:10.1016/j.jebo.2006.07.005. ISSN 0167-2681.
- ^ Shihadeh, Edward S.; Flynn, Nicole (June 1, 1996). "Segregation and Crime: The Effect of Black Social Isolation on the Rates of Black Urban Violence". Social Forces. 74 (4): 1325–1352. doi:10.1093/sf/74.4.1325. ISSN 0037-7732.
- ^ Hinton, Elizabeth; Cook, DeAnza (2021). "The Mass Criminalization of Black Americans: A Historical Overview". Annual Review of Criminology. 4 (1): annurev–criminol–060520-033306. doi:10.1146/annurev-criminol-060520-033306. ISSN 2572-4568.
- ^ Engel, Robin S. (2014). Bucerius, Sandra (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Ethnicity, Crime, and Immigration. Oxford University Press. p. 147. ISBN 9780199859016.
- ^ Drakulich, Kevin; Rodriguez-Whitney, Eric (June 22, 2018), "Intentional Inequalities and Compounding Effects", The Handbook of Race, Ethnicity, Crime, and Justice, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., pp. 17–38, doi:10.1002/9781119113799.ch1, ISBN 9781119113799, S2CID 158214425
- ^ Hinton, Elizabeth; Cook, DeAnza (June 29, 2020). "The Mass Criminalization of Black Americans: A Historical Overview". Annual Review of Criminology. 4: 261–286. doi:10.1146/annurev-criminol-060520-033306. ISSN 2572-4568.
- ^ Rehavi, M. Marit; Starr, Sonja B. (2014). "Racial Disparity in Federal Criminal Sentences". Journal of Political Economy. 122 (6): 1320–1354. doi:10.1086/677255. ISSN 0022-3808. S2CID 3348344.
- ^ Arnold, David; Dobbie, Will; Yang, Crystal S. (2018). "Racial Bias in Bail Decisions". The Quarterly Journal of Economics. 133 (4): 1885–1932. doi:10.1093/qje/qjy012. S2CID 13703268.
- ^ Cite error: The named reference
:2was invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ "Black men sentenced to more time for committing the exact same crime as a white person, study finds". washingtonpost.com. Archived from the original on November 16, 2017. Retrieved November 23, 2017.
- ^ Hanna, Jason; Park, Madison (January 13, 2017). "Chicago police use excessive force, DOJ finds". CNN. Retrieved January 13, 2017.
- ^ Williams, Suzanne Ife. Police brutality : case study of Philadelphia/Move. OCLC 84480572.
- ^ Balto, Simon (2019). Occupied Territory: Policing Black Chicago from Red Summer to Black Power. University of North Carolina Press. doi:10.5149/northcarolina/9781469649597.001.0001. ISBN 9781469649597. S2CID 242994510.
- ^ Ralph, Laurence (2020). The Torture Letters. University of Chicago Press. doi:10.7208/chicago/9780226650128.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-226-65012-8. S2CID 166340526.
- ^ Felker-Kantor, Max (2018). Policing Los Angeles: Race, Resistance, and the Rise of the LAPD. University of North Carolina Press. doi:10.5149/northcarolina/9781469646831.001.0001. ISBN 9781469646831. S2CID 239813851.