The phallotoxins consist of at least seven compounds, all of which are bicyclic heptapeptides (seven amino acids), isolated from the death cap mushroom (Amanita phalloides). They differ from the closely related amatoxins by being one residue smaller, both in the final product and the precursor protein.[1]
Phalloidin had been isolated in 1937 by Feodor Lynen, Heinrich Wieland's student and son-in-law, and Ulrich Wieland of the University of Munich.[2][3] The remaining six are prophalloin, phalloin, phallisin, phallacidin, phallacin and phallisacin. Though highly toxic to liver cells, phallotoxins have since been found to have little contribution to the death cap's toxicity because they are not absorbed through the gut. Reports of phalloidin in the edible (and sought after) Blusher (Amanita rubescens)[4] have not been confirmed by later researchers[5]
^Walton, Jonathan D.; Hallen-Adams, Heather E.; Luo, Hong (2010). "Ribosomal biosynthesis of the cyclic peptide toxins of Amanita mushrooms". Biopolymers. 94 (5): 659–664. doi:10.1002/bip.21416. PMC 4001729. PMID 20564017.
^Feodor Lynen, Ulrich Wieland (1938). "Über die Giftstoffe des Knollenblätterpilzes". Justus Liebig's Annalen der Chemie. 533 (1): 93–117. doi:10.1002/jlac.19385330105.
^Litten, W. (March 1975). "The most poisonous mushrooms". Scientific American. 232 (3): 90–101. Bibcode:1975SciAm.232c..90L. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0375-90. PMID 1114308.
^Hallen HE, Adams GC, Eicker A (2002) Amatoxins and phallotoxins in indigenous and introduced South African Amanita species. South African Journal of Botany 68:322-326.
The phallotoxins consist of at least seven compounds, all of which are bicyclic heptapeptides (seven amino acids), isolated from the death cap mushroom...
2000 ng/mL). Although this test cross-reacts with phallotoxins at 0.005% (200,000 ng/mL), the phallotoxins would not interfere in urine sampling and there...
(along with many other deadly and edible fungi) also contains phallotoxins, these phallotoxins are not toxic to humans (when ingested) as they are poorly...
Chen ZH, Zhang ZG, Zhang P (2003). "Analysis of the main amatoxins and phallotoxins in Amanita exitialis, a new species in China". Weishengwu Xuebao. 43...
enabled the researchers to identify the genes responsible for amatoxin and phallotoxin biosynthesis, AMA1 and PHA1. The cyclic peptides are synthesized on ribosomes...
across Europe and North America. Completely unknown, one study found phallotoxin in the caps. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Conocybe apala. Mushroom...
particularly in the spring. It contains highly toxic amatoxins, as well as phallotoxins, a feature shared with the closely related death cap (A. phalloides)...
alongside an additional unidentified phallotoxin. Findings indicate that the concentrations of amatoxins and phallotoxins in A. fuliginea vary among its tissues...
make treatment more difficult. Fruit bodies contain both amatoxins and phallotoxins. Amatoxins consist of at least eight compounds with a similar structure...
and profuse, watery diarrhea). This stage is caused primarily by the phallotoxins and typically lasts 24 hours. At the end of this second stage is when...
Motor protein — converts chemical energy into mechanical work Neuron Phallotoxin PDB: 1J6Z; Otterbein LR, Graceffa P, Dominguez R (Jul 2001). "The crystal...
muscimol-containing chemotaxonomic group of Amanitas contains no amatoxins or phallotoxins, and as such are not hepatoxic, though if not properly cured will be...
peptides, spread throughout the mushroom tissue: the amatoxins and the phallotoxins. Another toxin is phallolysin, which has shown some hemolytic (red blood...
Phalloidin belongs to a class of toxins called phallotoxins, which are found in the death cap mushroom (Amanita phalloides). It is a rigid bicyclic heptapeptide...
Ng TB (2006). "Toxins from Basidiomycete Fungi (Mushroom): Amatoxins, Phallotoxins, and Virotoxins". In Kastin AJ (ed.). Handbook of Biologically Active...
guides claim that the species (as G. autumnalis) also contains phallotoxins (however phallotoxins cannot be absorbed by humans), scientific evidence does not...
However, toxicity analysis found out at least one type of amatoxin and phallotoxin each within the species. Since it is difficult to distinguish from other...
phalloides: amatoxins, phallotoxins, and virotoxins. These toxins can cause deaths within 2-8 hours. Similarly to the phallotoxins, the virotoxins interact...
II. Mushroom poisoning T. Wieland; Faulstich H. (1978). "Amatoxins, Phallotoxins, Phallolysin, and Antamanide: the Biologically Active Components of Poisonous...
phallotoxins, thus suggesting that virotoxins are biosynthetically derived from phallotoxins or share common precursor pathways. As with phallotoxins...
powered zinc with acetic acid. Wieland T, Faulstich H (1978). "Amatoxins, phallotoxins, phallolysin, and antamanide: the biologically active components of poisonous...
exitialis was higher than that of Phallotoxins (Phallacidin, Phallisin, Phalloidin and Phalloin), but the content of phallotoxins (especially phallacidin) was...
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