Kelp forests are underwater areas with a high density of kelp, which covers a large part of the world's coastlines. Smaller areas of anchored kelp are called kelp beds. They are recognized as one of the most productive and dynamic ecosystems on Earth.[1][2] Although algal kelp forest combined with coral reefs only cover 0.1% of Earth's total surface, they account for 0.9% of global primary productivity.[3] Kelp forests occur worldwide throughout temperate and polar coastal oceans.[1] In 2007, kelp forests were also discovered in tropical waters near Ecuador.[4]
"I can only compare these great aquatic forests...with the terrestrial ones in the intertropical regions. Yet if in any country a forest was destroyed, I do not believe so nearly so many species of animals would perish as would here, from the destruction of kelp. Amidst the leaves of this plant numerous species of fish live, which nowhere else could find food or shelter; with their destruction the many cormorants and other fishing birds, the otters, seals and porpoise, would soon perish also; and lastly, the Fuegian[s]...would...decrease in numbers and perhaps cease to exist.
– Charles Darwin, 1 June 1834, Tierra del Fuego, Chile[5]
Physically formed by brown macroalgae, kelp forests provide a unique habitat for marine organisms[6] and are a source for understanding many ecological processes. Over the last century, they have been the focus of extensive research, particularly in trophic ecology, and continue to provoke important ideas that are relevant beyond this unique ecosystem. For example, kelp forests can influence coastal oceanographic patterns[7] and provide many ecosystem services.[8]
However, the influence of humans has often contributed to kelp forest degradation. Of particular concern are the effects of overfishing nearshore ecosystems, which can release herbivores from their normal population regulation and result in the overgrazing of kelp and other algae.[9] This can rapidly result in transitions to barren landscapes where relatively few species persist.[10][11] Already due to the combined effects of overfishing and climate change,[12] kelp forests have all but disappeared in many especially vulnerable places, such as Tasmania's east coast and the coast of Northern California.[13][14] The implementation of marine protected areas is one management strategy useful for addressing such issues, since it may limit the impacts of fishing and buffer the ecosystem from additive effects of other environmental stressors.
^ abMann, K.H. 1973. Seaweeds: their productivity and strategy for growth. Science 182: 975-981.
^See Fig. 3 in Blakemore, Robert (2018). "Non-Flat Earth Recalibrated for Terrain and Topsoil". Soil Systems. 2 (4): 64. doi:10.3390/soilsystems2040064.
^Graham, M.H., B.P. Kinlan, L.D. Druehl, L.E. Garske, and S. Banks. 2007. Deep-water kelp refugia as potential hotspots of tropical marine diversity and productivity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 104: 16576-16580.
^Darwin, C. 1909. The Voyage of the Beagle. The Harvard Classics Volume 29. New York, USA: P.F. Collier & Son Company.
^Christie, H., Jørgensen, N.M., Norderhaug, K.M., Waage-Nielsen, E., 2003. Species distribution and habitat exploitation of fauna associated with kelp (Laminaria hyperborea) along the Norwegian coast. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the UK 83, 687-699.
^Jackson, G.A. and C.D. Winant. 1983. Effect of a kelp forest on coastal currents. Continental Shelf Report 2: 75-80.
^Steneck, R.S., M.H. Graham, B.J. Bourque, D. Corbett, J.M. Erlandson, J.A. Estes and M.J. Tegner. 2002. Kelp forest ecosystems: biodiversity, stability, resilience and future. Environmental Conservation 29: 436-459.
^Sala, E., C.F. Bourdouresque and M. Harmelin-Vivien. 1998. Fishing, trophic cascades, and the structure of algal assemblages: evaluation of an old but untested paradigm. Oikos 82: 425-439.
^Dayton, P.K. 1985a. Ecology of kelp communities. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 16: 215-245.
^Norderhaug, K.M., Christie, H., 2009. Sea urchin grazing and kelp re-vegetation in the NE Atlantic. Marine Biology Research 5, 515-528
^Filbee-Dexter, Karen; Feehan, Colette J.; Scheibling, Robert E. (2016-02-03). "Large-scale degradation of a kelp ecosystem in an ocean warming hotspot". Marine Ecology Progress Series. 543: 141–152. Bibcode:2016MEPS..543..141F. doi:10.3354/meps11554. ISSN 0171-8630.
^Morton, Adam; Cordell, Marni; Fanner, David; Ball, Andy; Evershed, Nick. "The dead sea: Tasmania's underwater forests disappearing in our lifetime". the Guardian. Retrieved 2020-10-22.
^Steinbauer, James. "What Will It Take to Bring Back the Kelp Forest? - Bay Nature Magazine". Bay Nature. Retrieved 2020-10-22.
Kelpforests are underwater areas with a high density of kelp, which covers a large part of the world's coastlines. Smaller areas of anchored kelp are...
a stramenopile, a group containing many protists. Kelp grows in "underwater forests" (kelpforests) in shallow oceans, and is thought to have appeared...
a major component of temperate kelpforests. Despite its appearance, it is not a plant; it is a heterokont. Giant kelp is common along the coast of the...
marine habitats of Monterey Bay, it was the first to exhibit a living kelpforest when it opened in October 1984. Its biologists have pioneered the animal...
of subtidal kelp containing the species Nereocystis luetkeana. Some English names include edible kelp, bull kelp, bullwhip kelp, ribbon kelp, bladder wrack...
football fields every hour. Kelpforests occur worldwide throughout temperate and polar coastal oceans. In 2007, kelpforests were also discovered in tropical...
population. The urchins, in turn, grazed the holdfasts of kelp so heavily that the kelpforests largely disappeared, along with all the species that depended...
areas of anchored kelp are called kelp beds. Kelpforests occur worldwide throughout temperate and polar coastal oceans. Kelpforests provide a unique...
brown algae called kelp, a type of seaweed that grows several meters tall, creating dense and complex underwater forests. Kelpforests provide important...
"Plantwatch: kelp – forgotten forests that help tackle climate crisis". the Guardian. 17 March 2020. Retrieved 20 January 2022. "KelpForest Restoration...
Hyrcanian forests Illegal logging Intact forest landscape Kelpforest (A forest made mostly if not entirely of Kelp; an underwater forest) List of countries...
Aquaculture of giant kelp, Macrocystis pyrifera, is the cultivation of kelp for uses such as food, dietary supplements or potash. Giant kelp contains iodine...
urchins has led to an urchin population surge which has destroyed large kelpforest regions off the coast of California. Humans have a long history of cultivating...
forging a relationship with a wild common octopus in a South African kelpforest. At the 93rd Academy Awards, it won the award for Best Documentary Feature...
urchin populations which would otherwise inflict extensive damage to kelpforest ecosystems. Its diet includes prey species that are also valued by humans...
locally extinct as well. Also, since kelpforest ecosystems are homes to many other species, the loss of the kelp caused other cascade effects of secondary...
is to capture carbon using large areas of kelpforest. Marine permaculture also fixes carbon in seaweed forest projects offshore in Tasmania and the Philippines...
the extensive offshore kelpforest, where scuba divers often venture to explore and encounter interesting species. The kelpforests are also home to an extensive...
Paralabrax clathratus, the kelp bass, bull bass or calico bass, is a species of marine ray-finned fish, a sea bass from the subfamily Serraninae, classified...
on the lower stems of kelp, causing the kelp to drift away and die. Loss of the habitat and nutrients provided by kelpforests leads to profound cascade...
the Giant KelpForest" Tweak 22 October 2010 (2010-10-22) 10 April 2011 Kwazii's favorite sub, the GUP-B, goes missing in a huge kelpforest due to Kwazii...
area are supported by kelpforest habitats that are found along the coastal zones of the gulf. In the Gulf of Maine, different kelp macroalgae species are...