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The historiography of the War of 1812 reflects the numerous interpretations of the conflict, especially in reference to the war's outcome.[1][2] The historical record has interpreted both the British and Americans as victors in the conflict, with substantial academic and popular literature published to support each claim.
The British viewed the War of 1812 as a minor theatre that was overshadowed by key victories at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805 and the Battle of Waterloo in 1815, leading to the Pax Britannica. In the United States and Upper Canada, nationalistic mythology around the war took hold following its conclusion.[3][a]
With the failure of the invasion of British Canada advancing the concept of Canadian identity, and of Canada as a distinct region that would continue to evolve into a nation.[5] Americans were able to end the impressment of their citizens and enforce their sovereignty. Both the restoration of honor and what has been called the Second War of Independence are important themes in American historiography, and are considered significant results by historians.[6] Indigenous nations are generally held to have lost in the war.[7]
^Howe 2007, p. 74; Kohler 2013, p. 316: "While the debate about 'who won the war' continues, most historians agree that the clear loser was the First Nations/Native Americans."; Kohler 2013, p. 316; Clark & Hickey 2015, p. 103.
^Carroll 1997: "The War of 1812 also had an impact on the border. A decisive military victory by either the United States or His Majesty's forces might well have settled the boundary controversy once and for all, but by and large, the war was fought to a stalemate."; Heidler & Heidler 2002, p. 137: "Britain finally accepted stalemate as the best bargain. The American delegation wisely did so as well."; Howe 2007, p. 74: "Considered as a conflict between Great Britain and the United States, the War of 1812 was a draw. For the Native Americans, however, it constituted a decisive defeat with lasting consequences."; Waselkov 2009, p. 177: "New Orleans ... retrieved the nation's honor and brought the war to close as a virtual stalemate."; Hickey 2012, p. 228: "Thus, after three years of campaigning, neither the United States nor Great Britain could claim any great advantage in the war, let alone victory. Militarily, the War of 1812 ended in a draw."; Clark & Hickey 2015, p. 103; Coles 2018, p. 255: "Militarily the War of 1812 was a draw."; USS Constitution Museum: "Ultimately, the War of 1812 ended in a draw on the battlefield, and the peace treaty reflected this."
^Kaufman 1997, pp. 110–135; Buckner 2008, pp. 47–48; Sjolander 2014.
^Roosevelt 1900.
^Sjolander 2014.
^Swanson 1945, p. [page needed]; Brands 2005, p. 163; Hickey 2013.
^Bowman & Greenblatt 2003, p. 142; Kessel & Wooster 2005, p. 145; Howe 2007, p. 74; Thompson & Randall 2008, p. 23; Kohler 2013, p. 316.
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