Genetic history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas information
The genetic history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas is divided into two distinct periods: the initial peopling of the Americas during about 20,000 to 14,000 years ago (20–14 kya), and European contact, after about 500 years ago.[1][2] The first period of the genetic history of Indigenous Americans is the determinant factor for the number of genetic lineages, zygosity mutations, and founding haplotypes present in today's Indigenous American populations.[3]
Indigenous American populations descend from an Ancient Paleo-Siberian population, itself derived from an Ancient East Asian lineage which diverged from other East Asian peoples prior to the Last Glacial Maximum, between 36,000 and 25,000 years ago, and subsequently migrated into Siberia, where they merged with Ancient North Eurasians, a Paleolithic Siberian population with deep affinities to both European and Eastern Asian populations. They later dispersed throughout the Americas after about 16,000 years ago (exceptions being the Na-Dene and Eskimo–Aleut speaking groups, which are derived partially from Siberian populations which entered the Americas at a later time).[4][5]
Analyses of genetics among Indigenous American and Siberian populations have been used to argue for early isolation of founding populations on Beringia[6] and for later, more rapid migration from Siberia through Beringia into the New World.[7] The microsatellite diversity and distributions of the Y lineage specific to South America indicates that certain Indigenous American populations have been isolated since the initial peopling of the region.[8] The Na-Dene, Inuit and Native Alaskan populations exhibit Haplogroup Q-M242; however, they are distinct from other Indigenous Americans with various mtDNA and atDNA mutations.[9][10][11] This suggests that the peoples who first settled in the northern extremes of North America and Greenland derived from later migrant populations than those who penetrated farther south in the Americas.[12][13] Linguists and biologists have reached a similar conclusion based on analysis of Indigenous American language groups and ABO blood group system distributions.[14][15][16][17]
^Cite error: The named reference Genebase was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
^Orgel, Leslie E. (2004). "Prebiotic chemistry and the origin of the RNA world". Critical Reviews in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology. 39 (2): 99–123. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.537.7679. doi:10.1080/10409230490460765. PMID 15217990. S2CID 4939632.
^Tallbear, Kim (2014). "The Emergence, Politics, and Marketplace of Native American DNA". In Kleinman, Daniel Lee; Moore, Kelly (eds.). Routledge Handbook of Science, Technology, and Society. Routledge. p. 23. ISBN 978-1-136-23716-4. Archived from the original on January 30, 2016. Retrieved January 5, 2016.
^Moreno-Mayar, J. Víctor; Potter, Ben A.; Vinner, Lasse; et al. (January 2018). "Terminal Pleistocene Alaskan genome reveals first founding population of Native Americans" (PDF). Nature. 553 (7687): 203–207. Bibcode:2018Natur.553..203M. doi:10.1038/nature25173. PMID 29323294. S2CID 4454580.
^Arnaiz-Villena, A.; Parga-Lozano, C.; Moreno, E.; Areces, C.; Rey, D.; Gomez-Prieto, P. (April 1, 2010). "The Origin of Amerindians and the Peopling of the Americas According to HLA Genes: Admixture with Asian and Pacific People". Current Genomics. 11 (2). Bentham Science Publishers Ltd.: 103–114. doi:10.2174/138920210790886862. ISSN 1389-2029. PMC 2874220. PMID 20885818.
^Tamm, Erika; Kivisild, Toomas; Reidla, Maere; et al. (September 5, 2007). "Beringian Standstill and Spread of Native American Founders". PLOS ONE. 2 (9): e829. Bibcode:2007PLoSO...2..829T. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0000829. PMC 1952074. PMID 17786201.
^Derenko, Miroslava; Malyarchuk, Boris; Grzybowski, Tomasz; et al. (December 21, 2010). "Origin and Post-Glacial Dispersal of Mitochondrial DNA Haplogroups C and D in Northern Asia". PLOS ONE. 5 (12): e15214. Bibcode:2010PLoSO...515214D. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0015214. PMC 3006427. PMID 21203537.
^Bortolini, Maria-Catira; Salzano, Francisco M.; Thomas, Mark G.; et al. (September 2003). "Y-chromosome evidence for differing ancient demographic histories in the Americas". American Journal of Human Genetics. 73 (3): 524–539. doi:10.1086/377588. PMC 1180678. PMID 12900798.
^Cite error: The named reference NaDene was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
^Cite error: The named reference Zegura was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
^Saillard, Juliette; Forster, Peter; Lynnerup, Niels; et al. (2000). "mtDNA Variation among Greenland Eskimos. The Edge of the Beringian Expansion". American Journal of Human Genetics. 67 (3): 718–726. doi:10.1086/303038. PMC 1287530. PMID 10924403.
^Schurr, Theodore G. (October 21, 2004). "The Peopling of the New World: Perspectives from Molecular Anthropology". Annual Review of Anthropology. 33: 551–583. doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.33.070203.143932.
^Torroni, Antonio; Schurr, Theodore G.; Yang, Chi-Chuan; et al. (January 1992). "Native American Mitochondrial DNA Analysis Indicates That the Amerind and the Nadene Populations Were Founded by Two Independent Migrations". Genetics. 30 (1): 153–162. doi:10.1093/genetics/130.1.153. PMC 1204788. PMID 1346260.
^Wade, Nicholas (March 12, 2014). "Pause Is Seen in a Continent's Peopling". The New York Times. Archived from the original on April 9, 2021. Retrieved February 24, 2017.
^Lyovin, Anatole V. (1997). "Native Languages of the Americas". An Introduction to the Languages of the World. Oxford University. p. 309. ISBN 978-0-19-508115-2. Archived from the original on May 10, 2021. Retrieved June 7, 2020.
^Mithun, Marianne (October 1990). "Studies of North American Indian Languages". Annual Review of Anthropology. 19 (1): 309–330. doi:10.1146/annurev.an.19.100190.001521. JSTOR 2155968.
^Alice Roberts (2010). The Incredible Human Journey. A&C Black. pp. 101–03. ISBN 978-1-4088-1091-0. Archived from the original on January 25, 2021. Retrieved August 5, 2019.
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