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Generally speaking, Buddhism is a religion that does not include the belief in a monotheistic creator deity.[1][2][3] As such, it has often been described as either (non-materialistic) atheism or as nontheism, though these descriptions have been challenged by other scholars, since some forms of Buddhism do posit different kinds of transcendent, unborn, and unconditioned ultimate realities (e.g., Buddha-nature).[4]
Buddhist teachings state that there are divine beings called devas (sometimes translated as 'gods') and other Buddhist deities, heavens, and rebirths in its doctrine of saṃsāra, or cyclical rebirth. Buddhism teaches that none of these gods is a creator or an eternal being, though they can live very long lives.[1][5] In Buddhism, the devas are also trapped in the cycle of rebirth and are not necessarily virtuous. Thus, while Buddhism includes multiple "gods", its main focus is not on them. Peter Harvey calls this "trans-polytheism".[1]
Buddhist texts also posit that mundane deities, such as Mahabrahma, are misconstrued to be creators.[6] Buddhist ontology follows the doctrine of dependent origination, whereby all phenomena arise in dependence on other phenomena, hence no primal unmoved mover could be acknowledged or discerned. Gautama Buddha, in the early Buddhist texts, is also shown as stating that he saw no single beginning to the universe.[1]
During the medieval period, Buddhist philosophers like Vasubandhu developed extensive refutations of creationism and Hindu theism. Because of this, some modern scholars, such as Matthew Kapstein, have described this later stage of Buddhism as anti-theistic.[5][7] Buddhist anti-theistic writings were also common during the modern era, in response to the presence of Christian missionaries and their critiques of Buddhism.
In spite of this, some writers, such as B. Alan Wallace and Douglas Duckworth, have noted that certain doctrines in Vajrayana Buddhism can be seen as being similar to certain theistic doctrines like Neoplatonic theology and pantheism.[8] Various scholars have also compared East Asian Buddhist doctrines regarding the supreme and eternal Buddhas like Vairocana or Amitabha with certain forms of theism, such as pantheism and process theism.[9]
- ^ a b c d Harvey, Peter (2019). "Buddhism and Monotheism", p. 1. Cambridge University Press.
- ^ Taliaferro 2013, p. 35.
- ^ Blackburn, Anne M.; Samuels, Jeffrey (2003). "II. Denial of God in Buddhism and the Reasons Behind It". Approaching the Dhamma: Buddhist Texts and Practices in South and Southeast Asia. Pariyatti. pp. 128–146. ISBN 978-1-928706-19-9.[permanent dead link]
- ^ Schmidt-Leukel (2006), pp. 1-4.
- ^ a b Cite error: The named reference
:3was invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ Harvey 2013, p. 36-8.
- ^ Schmidt-Leukel (2006), p. 9.
- ^ B. Alan Wallace, "Is Buddhism Really Non-Theistic?". Snow Lion Newsletter, Volume 15, Number 1, Winter 2000. ISSN 1059-3691.
- ^ Zappulli, Davide Andrea (2022). Towards a Buddhist theism. Religious Studies, First View, pp. 1 – 13. doi:10.1017/S0034412522000725