Global InformationBenin Bronzes information
The Benin Bronzes are a group of several thousand[a] metal plaques and sculptures that decorated the royal palace of the Kingdom of Benin, in what is now Edo State, Nigeria. Collectively, the objects form the best examples of Benin art and were created from the fourteenth century by artists of the Edo people.[3][4][5][6][7] The plaques, which in the Edo language are called Ama,[8] depict scenes or represent themes in the history of the kingdom.[9] Apart from the plaques, other sculptures in brass or bronze include portrait heads, jewelry, and smaller pieces.
Some of the dramatic sculptures date to the fourteenth century, but the bulk of the collection dates to the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. It is believed that two "golden ages" in Benin metal workmanship occurred during the reigns of Esigie (fl. 1550) and of Eresoyen (1735–1750), when their workmanship achieved its highest quality.[10]
Most of the plaques and other objects were taken by British forces during the Benin Expedition of 1897 as the British Empire's control was being consolidated in Southern Nigeria.[11] This Expedition was positioned by British sources as retaliation for a massacre of an unarmed party of British envoys and a large number of their African bearers in January 1897. Some Contemporary scholars, such as Dan Hicks, argue that the Expedition was part of a broader series of premeditated attacks, framed as retaliatory or punitive, to further European imperialistic and economic interests in Africa.[12] Following the Expedition, two hundred pieces were taken to the British Museum in London, while the rest were taken to other European museums.[13] A large number are held by the British Museum[11] with other notable collections in Germany and the United States.[14]
Some erroneously concluded that Benin knowledge of metallurgy came from the Portuguese traders who were in contact with Benin in the early modern period.[7] The Kingdom of Benin was a hub of African civilization long before Portuguese traders visited,[15][16] and bronzes were made in Benin prior to the arrival of the Portuguese.[17] The Benin bronze sculpture tradition is thought to have derived from or been influenced by that of the older nearby Kingdom of Ife in southwest Nigeria.[5][6][7]
While the collection is known as the Benin Bronzes, like most West African "bronzes" the pieces are mostly made of brass of variable composition.[b] There are also pieces made of mixtures of bronze and brass, of wood, of ceramic, and of ivory, among other materials.[19] The metal pieces were made using lost-wax casting and are considered among the best sculptures made using this technique.[20] Benin began to trade ivory, pepper, and slaves[21] with the Portuguese in the late 15th century and incorporate the use of manillas (brass ingots in the form of bracelets, bought from the Portuguese) as a metal source in their sculpture. The manillas' brass, previously suggested to come from The Netherlands, is now thought to come from the Rhineland region of Germany.[22][23][24]
Since November 2022, information on the Benin Bronzes and other artifacts from the Kingdom of Benin can be accessed through the online platform Digital Benin.[25]
On 29 November 2022, it was announced that the Horniman Museum in Forest Hill, London had signed its Benin Bronzes back to Nigeria. The formal signing ceremony took place on the evening of 28 November 2022 in front of Nigerian royalty and other dignitaries.[26] On 7 May 2023, the Bronzes were given to the Oba of Benin, Ewuare II, through a presidential decree, and effectively became his private property.[27][28]
- ^ Dohlvik 2006, p. 7.
- ^ Nevadomsky 2005, p. 66.
- ^ "British Museum, "Curator's comments"". Archived from the original on 28 October 2021. Retrieved 17 May 2021.
- ^ Benin Archived 28 October 2021 at the Wayback Machine, The Art Institute of Chicago.
- ^ a b Huera 1988, p. 36.
- ^ a b Huera 1988, p. 37.
- ^ a b c Meyerowitz, Eva L. R. (1943). "Ancient Bronzes in the Royal Palace at Benin". The Burlington Magazine. 83 (487). The Burlington Magazine Publications, Ltd.: 248–253. JSTOR 868735.
- ^ "Digital Benin". digitalbenin.org. Retrieved 26 November 2023.
- ^ Hicks, Dan (2020). The Brutish Museums: The Benin Bronzes, Colonial Violence and Cultural Restitution. London: Pluto Press. pp. 138–139.
- ^ Greenfield 2007, p. 122.
- ^ a b Lusher, Adam (24 June 2018). "British museums may loan Nigeria bronzes that were taken from Nigeria by the British". The Independent. Archived from the original on 30 October 2021. Retrieved 14 December 2018.
- ^ Hicks, Dan (2020). The Brutish Museums: the Benin Bronzes, colonial violence and cultural restitution. Pluto Press. pp. 3, 40–42, 67–69, 84. ISBN 978-0-7453 4176-7.
- ^ Greenfield 2007, p. 124.
- ^ Benin Diplomatic Handbook, p. 23.
- ^ "Benin and the Portuguese". Khan Academy. Archived from the original on 3 July 2018. Retrieved 26 November 2018.
- ^ "The kingdom of Benin". Archived from the original on 29 June 2021. Retrieved 8 July 2021.
- ^ Mihăilescu, Plutarh-Antoniu (1968). Întâlnire cu arta africană (in Romanian). Editura Meridiane. p. 48.
- ^ British Museum, "Scope Note" for "copper alloy" Archived 18 August 2014 at the Wayback Machine. Britishmuseum.org. Retrieved 26 May 2014.
- ^ Dohlvik 2006, p. 21.
- ^ Nevadomsky 2004, pp. 1, 4, 86–8, 95–6.
- ^ Santos, Talita Teixeira dos (July 2010). "Com a cruz e sem a espada: aspectos da relação comercial entre Portugal e o reino do Benim ao longo dos séculos XV e XVI" (PDF). Associação Nacional de História (ANPUH). XIV.
- ^ Skowronek, Tobias B.; Decorse, Christopher R.; Denk, Rolf; Birr, Stefan D.; Kingsley, Sean; Cook, Gregory D.; Benito Dominguez, Ana María; Clifford, Brandon; Barker, Andrew; Otero, José Suárez; Moreira, Vicente Caramés; Bode, Michael; Jansen, Moritz; Scholes, Daniel (2023). "German brass for Benin Bronzes: Geochemical analysis insights into the early Atlantic trade". PLOS ONE. 18 (4): e0283415. Bibcode:2023PLoSO..1883415S. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0283415. PMC 10075414. PMID 37018227.
- ^ Alberge, Dalya (5 April 2023). "Benin bronzes made from metal mined in west Germany, study finds". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 8 April 2023. Retrieved 8 April 2023.
- ^ "Famous Benin Bronzes from West Africa used metal sourced in Germany". New Scientist. Archived from the original on 7 April 2023. Retrieved 8 April 2023.
- ^ Cite error: The named reference
:1was invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ Razzall, Katie (29 November 2022). "Benin Bronzes: Nigeria hails 'great day' as London museum signs over looted objects". BBC News. Archived from the original on 28 November 2022. Retrieved 29 November 2022.
- ^ Cite error: The named reference
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