Classification of fluency mainly for endangered languages
This article is about linguistics. For types of loudspeakers, see Loudspeaker.
Within the linguistic study of endangered languages, sociolinguists distinguish between different speaker types based on the type of competence they have acquired of the endangered language. Often when a community is gradually shifting away from an endangered language to a majority language, not all speakers acquire full linguistic competence; instead, speakers have varying degrees and types of competence depending on their exposure to the minority language in their upbringing. The relevance of speaker types in cases of language shift was first noted by Nancy Dorian, who coined the term semi-speaker to refer to those speakers of Sutherland Gaelic who were predominantly English-speaking and whose Gaelic competence was limited and showed considerable influence from English.[1][2] Later studies added additional speaker types such as rememberers (who remember some words and phrases but have little or no grammatical competence and do not actively speak the language), and passive speakers (who have nearly full comprehension competence but do not actively speak the language). In the context of language revitalization, new speakers who have learned the endangered language as a second language are sometimes distinguished.[3][4][5]
In contexts of language acquisition and language teaching studies, there is sometimes a distinction between native speakers and second language speakers, depending on whether the language was learned as a language of primary socialisation or after having fully acquired a first language. In contexts of multilingualism a bilingual speaker may also be described as a heritage speaker (although a heritage language actually refers to a language whose speakers have moved from the original area where the language was spoken: e.g. Welsh is a heritage language in Patagonia, but not in Wales) if they have not been as fully exposed to one of their languages, leading to a diminished degree of confidence in themselves as speakers, and sometimes also limited competence in one of their languages.
^Dorian, Nancy C. (1977). "The Problem of the Semi-Speaker in Language Death". Linguistics. 15 (191). doi:10.1515/ling.1977.15.191.23. S2CID 201808743.
^Dorian, Nancy C. (1980). "Language Shift in Community and Individual: The Phenomenon of the Laggard Semi-Speaker". International Journal of the Sociology of Language (25): 85–94. doi:10.1515/ijsl.1980.25.85. S2CID 201721541.
^Hornsby, Michael (2015). "The "new" and "traditional" speaker dichotomy: Bridging the gap". International Journal of the Sociology of Language (231): 107–125. doi:10.1515/ijsl-2014-0034. S2CID 143399489.
^Grinevald, Colette (2003). "Speakers and documentation of endangered languages" (PDF). Language Documentation and Description. 1: 52-72. ISSN 1740-6234.
^Grinevald, Collette; Bert, Michel (2011). "Speakers and Communities". In Austin, Peter K; Sallabank, Julia (eds.). Cambridge Handbook of Endangered Languages. Cambridge University Press. p. 50. ISBN 9780521882156.
endangered languages, sociolinguists distinguish between different speakertypes based on the type of competence they have acquired of the endangered language...
as a speaker or speaker driver) is an electroacoustic transducer that converts an electrical audio signal into a corresponding sound. A speaker system...
systems for TV or video. Further, types for special applications like waterproof speakers for use in the shower or speakers for a voice assistant may intermix...
Speaker wire is used to make the electrical connection between loudspeakers and audio amplifiers. Modern speaker wire consists of two or more electrical...
in severe instances could damage the speaker, resulting in unwanted rattling at the least. Some types of speakers have such unique characteristics that...
is not available. There are two types of lay speakers: local lay speakers and certified lay speakers. Local lay speakers need only take one basic course...
Computer speakers, or multimedia speakers, are speakers sold for use with computers, although usually capable of other audio uses, e.g. for an MP3 player...
Speaker of the National Assembly presides over the National Assembly of South Africa, the lower house of the Parliament of South Africa. The speaker is...
Con artists in this type of scam call themselves "speakerguys" or "speakermen", and usually claim to be working for a speaker delivery or installation...
elements: (i) the speaker; (ii) the topic or point of the speech; and (iii) the audience. Aristotle also classifies oration into three types: (i) political...
Passive speaker(s) can refer to: A type of loudspeaker Passive speaker (language), a person who can understand but not speak a language This disambiguation...
the Leslie speaker is switched from "chorale" to "tremolo" and back again Problems playing this file? See media help. The Leslie speaker is a combined...
loudspeaker cabinet is an enclosure (often rectangular box-shaped) in which speaker drivers (e.g., loudspeakers and tweeters) and associated electronic hardware...
guitar speaker cabinet. Typically these drivers produce only the frequency range relevant to electric guitars, which is similar to a regular woofer type driver...
Speaker diarisation (or diarization) is the process of partitioning an audio stream containing human speech into homogeneous segments according to the...
Rajya Sabha. Speaker and Deputy Speaker As per Article 93 of the Indian Constitution, the Lok Sabha has a Speaker and a Deputy Speaker. In the Lok Sabha...
discrete capacitors some new developments or very special capacitor types as well as older types can be found in electronics. Integrated capacitors—in integrated...
size and depth, material types, assembly methods, type and thickness of the baffle material (the wood panel that holds the speaker), and the way the baffle...
An electrodynamic speaker driver, often called simply a speaker driver when the type is implicit, is an individual transducer that converts an electrical...
A variety of types of electrical transformer are made for different purposes. Despite their design differences, the various types employ the same basic...
A speakers bureau is a collection of speakers who talk about a particular subject, or a company, which operates to facilitate speakers for clients requiring...
A smart speaker is a type of loudspeaker and voice command device with an integrated virtual assistant that offers interactive actions and hands-free...
is a West Germanic language in the Indo-European language family, whose speakers, called Anglophones, originated in early medieval England. The namesake...
A dipole speaker enclosure in its simplest form is constructed by mounting a loudspeaker driver on a flat panel. The panel may be folded to conserve space...
graphics, tactile, audio, or video. Examples include monitors, printers, speakers, headphones, projectors, GPS devices, optical mark readers, and braille...
Native Esperanto speakers (Esperanto: denaskuloj or denaskaj esperantistoj) are people who have acquired Esperanto as one of their native languages. As...
in a wooden speaker cabinet used for the amplification of electronic keyboard instruments. Keyboard amplifiers are distinct from other types of amplification...