Global InformationPsychedelic drug information
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Psychedelics are a subclass of hallucinogenic drugs whose primary effect is to trigger non-ordinary mental states (known as psychedelic experiences or "trips") and an apparent expansion of consciousness.[2][3] Also referred to as classic hallucinogens or serotonergic hallucinogens, the term psychedelic is sometimes used more broadly to include various types of hallucinogens, such as those which are atypical or adjacent to psychedelia like salvia and MDMA, respectively.[4]
Classic psychedelics generally cause specific psychological, visual, and auditory changes, and oftentimes a substantially altered state of consciousness.[5][6] They have had the largest influence on science and culture, and include mescaline, LSD, psilocybin, and DMT.[7][8]
Most psychedelic drugs fall into one of the three families of chemical compounds: tryptamines, phenethylamines, or lysergamides (LSD is considered both a tryptamine and lysergamide). They act via serotonin 2A receptor agonism.[2][9][10][11][4] When compounds bind to serotonin 5-HT2A receptors,[12] they modulate the activity of key circuits in the brain involved with sensory perception and cognition. However, the exact nature of how psychedelics induce changes in perception and cognition via the 5-HT2A receptor is still unknown.[13] The psychedelic experience is often compared to non-ordinary forms of consciousness such as those experienced in meditation,[14][3] mystical experiences,[6][5] and near-death experiences,[5] which also appear to be partially underpinned by altered default mode network activity.[15] The phenomenon of ego death is often described as a key feature of the psychedelic experience.[14][3][5]
Many psychedelic drugs are illegal worldwide under the UN conventions, with occasional exceptions for religious use or research contexts. Despite these controls, recreational use of psychedelics is common.[16][17] Legal barriers have made the scientific study of psychedelics more difficult. Research has been conducted, however, and studies show that psychedelics are physiologically safe and rarely lead to addiction.[18][19] Studies conducted using psilocybin in a psychotherapeutic setting reveal that psychedelic drugs may assist with treating depression, alcohol addiction, and nicotine addiction.[11][20] Although further research is needed, existing results suggest that psychedelics could be effective treatments for certain forms of psychopathology.[21][22][23][17] A 2022 survey found that 28% of Americans had used a psychedelic at some point in their life.[24]
- ^ "Peyote San Pedro Cactus – Shamanic Sacraments". D.M.Taylor.
- ^ a b Aghajanian, G (August 1999). "Serotonin and Hallucinogens". Neuropsychopharmacology. 21 (2): 16S–23S. doi:10.1016/S0893-133X(98)00135-3. PMID 10432484.
- ^ a b c Millière R, Carhart-Harris RL, Roseman L, Trautwein FM, Berkovich-Ohana A (2018). "Psychedelics, Meditation, and Self-Consciousness". Frontiers in Psychology. 9: 1475. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01475. PMC 6137697. PMID 30245648.
- ^ a b McClure-Begley TD, Roth BL (2022). "The promises and perils of psychedelic pharmacology for psychiatry". Nature Reviews Drug Discovery. 21 (6): 463–473. doi:10.1038/s41573-022-00421-7. PMID 35301459. S2CID 247521633. Retrieved 2024-02-08.
- ^ a b c d Timmermann C, Roseman L, Williams L, Erritzoe D, Martial C, Cassol H, et al. (2018). "DMT Models the Near-Death Experience". Frontiers in Psychology. 9: 1424. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01424. PMC 6107838. PMID 30174629.
- ^ a b R. R. Griffiths, W. A. Richards, U. McCann, R. Jesse (7 July 2006). "Psilocybin can occasion mystical-type experiences having substantial and sustained personal meaning and spiritual significance". Psychopharmacology. 187 (3): 268–283. doi:10.1007/s00213-006-0457-5. PMID 16826400. S2CID 7845214.
- ^ McKenna, Terence (1992). Food of the Gods: The Search for the Original Tree of Knowledge A Radical History of Plants, Drugs, and Human Evolution
- ^ W. Davis (1996), One River: Explorations and Discoveries in the Amazon Rain Forest. New York, Simon and Schuster, Inc. p. 120.
- ^ "Crystal Structure of LSD and 5-HT2AR Part 2: Binding Details and Future Psychedelic Research Paths". Psychedelic Science Review. 2020-10-05. Retrieved 2021-02-12.
- ^ Nichols DE (2018). "Chemistry and Structure–Activity Relationships of Psychedelics". In Halberstadt AL, Vollenweider FX, Nichols DE (eds.). Behavioral Neurobiology of Psychedelic Drugs. Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences. Vol. 36. Berlin: Springer. pp. 1–43. doi:10.1007/7854_2017_475. ISBN 978-3-662-55880-5. PMID 28401524.
- ^ a b Nichols DE (2016). "Psychedelics". Pharmacological Reviews. 68 (2): 264–355. doi:10.1124/pr.115.011478. ISSN 0031-6997. PMC 4813425. PMID 26841800.
- ^ Siegel GJ (11 November 2005). Basic neurochemistry: Molecular, cellular and medical aspects (7th ed.). Amsterdam: Elsevier Science. ISBN 978-0-08-047207-2. OCLC 123438340.
- ^ Smigielski L, Scheidegger M, Kometer M, Vollenweider FX (August 2019). "Psilocybin-assisted mindfulness training modulates self-consciousness and brain default mode network connectivity with lasting effects". NeuroImage. 196: 207–215. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2019.04.009. PMID 30965131. S2CID 102487343.
- ^ a b Letheby C, Gerrans P (2017). "Self unbound: ego dissolution in psychedelic experience". Neuroscience of Consciousness. 3 (1): nix016. doi:10.1093/nc/nix016. PMC 6007152. PMID 30042848.
The connection with findings about PCC deactivation in 'effortless awareness' meditation is obvious, and bolstered by the finding that acute ayahuasca intoxication increases mindfulness-related capacities.
- ^ Brewer JA, Worhunsky PD, Gray JR, Tang YY, Weber J, Kober H (2011-12-13). "Meditation experience is associated with differences in default mode network activity and connectivity". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 108 (50): 20254–20259. Bibcode:2011PNAS..10820254B. doi:10.1073/pnas.1112029108. PMC 3250176. PMID 22114193.
- ^ Krebs, Teri S, Johansen, Pål-Ørjan (28 March 2013). "Over 30 million psychedelic users in the United States". F1000Research. 2: 98. doi:10.12688/f1000research.2-98.v1. PMC 3917651. PMID 24627778.
- ^ a b Garcia-Romeu, Albert, Kersgaard, Brennan, Addy, Peter H. (August 2016). "Clinical applications of hallucinogens: A review". Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology. 24 (4): 229–268. doi:10.1037/pha0000084. PMC 5001686. PMID 27454674.
- ^ Le Dain G (1971). The Non-medical Use of Drugs: Interim Report of the Canadian Government's Commission of Inquiry. p. 106.
Physical dependence does not develop to LSD
- ^ Lüscher, Christian, Ungless, Mark A. (14 November 2006). "The Mechanistic Classification of Addictive Drugs". PLOS Medicine. 3 (11): e437. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0030437. PMC 1635740. PMID 17105338.
- ^ Rich Haridy (24 October 2018). "Psychedelic psilocybin therapy for depression granted Breakthrough Therapy status by FDA". newatlas.com. Retrieved 2019-09-27.
- ^ Bender D, Hellerstein DJ (2022). "Assessing the risk–benefit profile of classical psychedelics: a clinical review of second-wave psychedelic research". Psychopharmacology. 239 (6): 1907–1932. doi:10.1007/s00213-021-06049-6. PMID 35022823. S2CID 245906937.
- ^ Reiff CM, Richman EE, Nemeroff CB, Carpenter LL, Widge AS, Rodriguez CI, et al. (May 2020). "Psychedelics and Psychedelic-Assisted Psychotherapy". The American Journal of Psychiatry. 177 (5): 391–410. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2019.19010035. PMID 32098487. S2CID 211524704.
- ^ Cite error: The named reference
tupper-et-alwas invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ Orth T (July 28, 2022). "One in four Americans say they've tried at least one psychedelic drug". YouGov.