Global InformationNATO bombing of Yugoslavia information
| NATO bombing of Yugoslavia | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Part of the Kosovo War | |||||||||
 The Yugoslav city of Novi Sad on fire in 1999 | |||||||||
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| Belligerents | |||||||||
 NATO
|
 FR Yugoslavia | ||||||||
| Commanders and leaders | |||||||||
|
 Gen. John W. Hendrix[17] James O. Ellis[18] |
 Slobodan Milošević Dragoljub Ojdanić Nebojša Pavković | ||||||||
| Strength | |||||||||
|
NATO: 1,031+ aircraft[19] 30 warships & submarines[20] Task Force Hawk |
114,000 regulars 20,000 police 1,270 tanks 825 armoured vehicles[20] 1,400 artillery pieces 100 SAM launchers 14 modern combat aircraft[21] | ||||||||
| Casualties and losses | |||||||||
|
3 jet fighters destroyed 2 helicopters destroyed 46 UAVs destroyed[22] 3 jet fighters damaged 2 soldiers killed (non-combat helicopter crash) 3 soldiers captured |
Serbian MOD in 2013: 14 tanks, 18 APCs and 20 artillery pieces destroyed[27][28] | ||||||||
|
Human Rights Watch estimate: 489–528 civilians killed (60% of whom were in Kosovo)[29]  3 Chinese citizens killed in NATO's bombing of China's embassy in Belgrade | |||||||||
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The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) carried out an aerial bombing campaign against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia during the Kosovo War. The air strikes lasted from 24 March 1999 to 10 June 1999. The bombings continued until an agreement was reached that led to the withdrawal of the Yugoslav Army from Kosovo, and the establishment of the United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo, a UN peacekeeping mission in Kosovo. The official NATO operation code name was Operation Allied Force (Serbian: Савезничка сила / Saveznička sila) whereas the United States called it Operation Noble Anvil (Serbian: Племенити наковањ / Plemeniti nakovanj);[31] in Yugoslavia the operation was incorrectly called Merciful Angel (Serbian: Милосрдни анђео / Milosrdni anđeo), possibly as a result of a misunderstanding or mistranslation.[32]
NATO's intervention was prompted by Yugoslavia's bloodshed and ethnic cleansing of Albanians, which drove the Albanians into neighbouring countries and had the potential to destabilize the region. Yugoslavia's actions had already provoked condemnation by international organisations and agencies such as the UN, NATO, and various INGOs.[33][34] Yugoslavia's refusal to sign the Rambouillet Accords was initially offered as justification for NATO's use of force.[35] NATO countries attempted to gain authorisation from the UN Security Council for military action, but were opposed by China and Russia, who indicated that they would veto such a measure. As a result, NATO launched its campaign without the UN's approval, stating that it was a humanitarian intervention. The UN Charter prohibits the use of force except in the case of a decision by the Security Council under Chapter VII, or self-defence against an armed attack – neither of which were present in this case.[36]
By the end of the war, the Yugoslavs had killed 1,500[37] to 2,131 combatants.[38] 10,317 civilians were killed or missing, with 85% of those being Kosovar Albanian and some 848,000 were expelled from Kosovo.[39] The NATO bombing killed about 1,000 members of the Yugoslav security forces in addition to between 489 and 528 civilians. It destroyed or damaged bridges, industrial plants, hospitals, schools, cultural monuments, and private businesses, as well as barracks and military installations. In total, between 9 to 11 tonnes of depleted uranium was dropped across all of Yugoslavia.[40] In the days after the Yugoslav army withdrew, over 164,000 Serbs and 24,000 Roma left Kosovo. Many of the remaining non-Albanian civilians (as well as Albanians perceived as collaborators) were victims of abuse which included beatings, abductions, and murders.[41][42][43][44][45] After Kosovo and other Yugoslav Wars, Serbia became home to the highest number of refugees and IDPs (including Kosovo Serbs) in Europe.[46][47][48]
The bombing was NATO's second major combat operation, following the 1995 bombing campaign in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It was the first time that NATO had used military force without the expressed endorsement of the UN Security Council and thus, international legal approval,[49] which triggered debates over the legitimacy of the intervention.
- ^ Cite error: The named reference
Norske jagerfly på vingene i gårwas invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ Cite error: The named reference
Turkish Air Forcewas invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ Cite error: The named reference
natowas invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ Cite error: The named reference
cnnwas invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ References:
- Stigler, Andrew L. "A clear victory for air power: NATO's empty threat to invade Kosovo." International Security 27.3 (2003): 124–157.
- Biddle, Stephen. "The new way of war? Debating the Kosovo model." (2002): 138–144.
- Dixon, Paul. "Victory by spin? Britain, the US and the propaganda war over Kosovo." Civil Wars 6.4 (2003): 83–106.
- Harvey, Frank P. "Getting NATO's success in Kosovo right: The theory and logic of counter-coercion." Conflict Management and Peace Science 23.2 (2006): pp. 139–158.
- ^ Stigler, Andrew L. "A clear victory for air power: NATO's empty threat to invade Kosovo." International Security 27.3 (2003): pp. 124–157.
- ^ Biddle, Stephen. "The new way of war? Debating the Kosovo model." (2002): 138–144.
- ^ Dixon, Paul. "Victory by spin? Britain, the US and the propaganda war over Kosovo." Civil Wars 6.4 (2003): pp. 83–106.
- ^ Harvey, Frank P. "Getting NATO's success in Kosovo right: The theory and logic of counter-coercion." Conflict Management and Peace Science 23.2 (2006): pp. 139–158.
- ^ Parenti (2000), pp. 198
- ^ "Serbia marks another anniversary of NATO attacks - English - on B92.net". Archived from the original on 10 September 2016. Retrieved 29 April 2017.
- ^ Zunes, Stephen (6 July 2009). "The US War on Yugoslavia: Ten Years Later". HuffPost. Archived from the original on 31 August 2017. Retrieved 16 April 2018.
- ^ "Abuses against Serbs and Roma in the new Kosovo". Human Rights Watch. August 1999. Archived from the original on 10 October 2017. Retrieved 4 December 2016.
- ^ Hudson, Robert; Bowman, Glenn (2012). After Yugoslavia: Identities and Politics Within the Successor States. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 30. ISBN 9780230201316.
- ^ "Kosovo Crisis Update". United Nations High Commission for Refugees. 4 August 1999. Archived from the original on 16 October 2015. Retrieved 24 March 2019.
- ^ Siobhán Wills (26 February 2009). Protecting Civilians: The Obligations of Peacekeepers. Oxford University Press. p. 219. ISBN 978-0-19-953387-9. Archived from the original on 11 January 2023. Retrieved 24 February 2013.
- ^ Cite error: The named reference
Task Force Hawkwas invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ Cite error: The named reference
Operation Allied Force - Operation Allied Force in Kosovowas invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ Cite error: The named reference
Kosovo operation allied force after-action reportwas invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ a b Cite error: The named reference
GroupedRef4was invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ NATOs AirWar for Kosovo, Benjamin S. Lambert
- ^ "Officially confirmed / documented NATO UAV losses". 8 March 2001. Archived from the original on 8 March 2001.
- ^ "Stradalo 1.008 vojnika i policajaca". RTS. 11 February 2013. Archived from the original on 3 June 2021. Retrieved 2 June 2021.
- ^ a b "Human losses in NATO bombing (Serbia Kosovo, Montenegro)". FHP. Archived from the original on 24 March 2022. Retrieved 24 March 2022.
- ^ "Seven years since end of NATO bombing" Archived 26 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine, 2006. "A group of economists from the G17 Plus party has estimated the total damages to be about 29.6 billion dollars". Retrieved 18 September 2015.
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Op. Cit., Lambeth 2001: 86was invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ a b c Cite error: The named reference
aubin2000was invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ Macdonald 2007, p. 99: "NATO.. claimed to have destroyed about 120 tanks, 220 APCs and 450 artillery pieces and mortars in the 78-day bombing campaign. In reality, thanks in large part to decoys, NATO only destroyed 14 tanks, 18 APCs and 20 guns and mortars.."
- ^ a b Cite error: The named reference
hrw.orgwas invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ „Шеснаеста годишњица НАТО бомбардовања“ Archived 29 October 2020 at the Wayback Machine, РТС, 24. март 2015.
- ^ Cite error: The named reference
Towards a common European security and defense policy: the ways and means of making it a realitywas invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ RTS: "Порекло имена 'Милосрдни анђео'" ("On the origin of the name 'Merciful Angel'") Archived 2 November 2012 at the Wayback Machine, 26 March 2009 (in Serbian)
- ^ Jordan, Robert S. (2001). International organizations: A comparative approach to the management of cooperation. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 129. ISBN 9780275965495.
- ^ Yoshihara, Susan Fink (2006). "Kosovo". In Reveron, Derek S.; Murer, Jeffrey Stevenson (eds.). Flashpoints in the War on Terrorism. Routledge. pp. 67–68. ISBN 9781135449315.
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LeidenSuywas invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ O'Connell, Mary Ellen (2000). "The UN, NATO, and International Law after Kosovo". Human Rights Quarterly. 22 (1): 57–89. doi:10.1353/hrq.2000.0012. ISSN 0275-0392. JSTOR 4489267. S2CID 146137597.
- ^ Daalder, Ivo H.; O'Hanlon, Michel E. (2000). Winning Ugly: NATO's War to Save Kosovo (2004 ed.). Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press. p. 151. ISBN 978-0815798422. Archived from the original on 11 January 2023. Retrieved 2 January 2021 – via Google Books.
- ^ "Kosovo Memory Book Database Presentation and Expert Evaluation" (PDF). Humanitarian Law Center. 4 February 2015. Archived (PDF) from the original on 12 November 2020. Retrieved 2 January 2021.
- ^ Judah, Tim (1997). The Serbs: History, Myth and the Destruction of Yugoslavia (2009, 3rd ed.). New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. p. 150. ISBN 978-0-300-15826-7. Retrieved 3 January 2021 – via Google Books.
the Serbian police began clearing ... people [who] were marched down to the station and deported... the UNCHR registered 848,000 people who had either been forcibly expelled or had fled
- ^ Miljević, Nada; Marković, Mirjana; Todorović, Dragana; Cvijović, Mirjana; Dušan, Golobočanin; Orlić, Milan; Veselinović, Dragan; Biočanin, Rade (2001). "Uranium content in the soil of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia after NATO intervention" (PDF). Archive of Oncology. 9 (4): 245-249. Retrieved 31 March 2024.
- ^ "Abuses against Serbs and Roma in the new Kosovo". Human Rights Watch. August 1999. Archived from the original on 10 October 2017. Retrieved 4 December 2016.
- ^ Hudson, Robert; Bowman, Glenn (2012). After Yugoslavia: Identities and Politics Within the Successor States. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 30. ISBN 9780230201316.
- ^ "Kosovo Crisis Update". United Nations High Commission for Refugees. 4 August 1999. Archived from the original on 16 October 2015. Retrieved 24 March 2019.
- ^ "Forced Expulsion of Kosovo Roma, Ashkali and Egyptians from OSCE Participated state to Kosovo". OSCE. 6 October 2006. Archived from the original on 26 November 2015. Retrieved 24 March 2019.
- ^ Siobhán Wills (26 February 2009). Protecting Civilians: The Obligations of Peacekeepers. Oxford University Press. p. 219. ISBN 978-0-19-953387-9. Archived from the original on 11 January 2023. Retrieved 24 February 2013.
- ^ "Serbia home to highest number of refugees and IDPs in Europe". B92. 20 June 2010. Archived from the original on 26 March 2017. Retrieved 26 March 2019.
- ^ "Serbia: Europe's largest proctracted refugee situation". OSCE. 2008. Archived from the original on 26 March 2017. Retrieved 26 March 2019.
- ^ S. Cross, S. Kentera, R. Vukadinovic, R. Nation (7 May 2013). Shaping South East Europe's Security Community for the Twenty-First Century: Trust, Partnership, Integration. Springer. p. 169. ISBN 9781137010209. Archived from the original on 11 January 2023. Retrieved 31 January 2017.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Zyla, Benjamin (2020). The End of European Security Institutions?: The EU's Common Foreign and Security Policy and NATO After Brexit. Springer. p. 40. ISBN 9783030421601. Archived from the original on 22 July 2022. Retrieved 22 July 2022.