Solar storms of different types are caused by disturbances on the Sun, most often from coronal mass ejections (CMEs) and solar flares from active regions, or, less often, from coronal holes. Minor to active solar storms (i.e. storming restricted to higher latitudes) may occur under elevated background solar wind conditions when the interplanetary magnetic field (IMF) orientation is southward, toward the Earth (which also leads to much stronger storming conditions from CME-related sources).[1][2][3][4][5]
^"The Interplanetary Magnetic Field (IMF)". SpaceWeatherLive.com. Parsec vzw. Retrieved 2021-03-20.
^Adhikari, Binod; S. Dahal; N. P. Chapagain (2017). "Study of field‐aligned current (FAC), interplanetary electric field component (Ey), interplanetary magnetic field component (Bz), and northward (x) and eastward (y) components of geomagnetic field during supersubstorm". Earth and Space Science. 4 (5): 257–274. Bibcode:2017E&SS....4..257A. doi:10.1002/2017EA000258.
^Gonzalez, W. D.; E. Echer (2005). "A study on the peak Dst and peak negative Bz relationship during intense geomagnetic storms". Geophysical Research Letters. 32 (18): L18103. Bibcode:2005GeoRL..3218103G. doi:10.1029/2005GL023486.
^Loewe, C. A.; G. W. Prölss (1997). "Classification and mean behavior of magnetic storms". Journal of Geophysical Research: Space Physics. 102 (A7): 14209–14213. Bibcode:1997JGR...10214209L. doi:10.1029/96JA04020.
^T. Y. Lui, Anthony; Consolini, Giuseppe; Kamide, Yosuke, eds. (2005). "What Determines the Intensity of Magnetospheric Substorms?". Multiscale Coupling of Sun-Earth Processes (1st ed.). Elsevier. pp. 175–194. doi:10.1016/B978-044451881-1/50014-9. ISBN 978-0444518811.
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