Maize (Zea mays, Poaceae) is the most widely cultivated C4 plant.[1]
In botany, C4 carbon fixation is one of three known methods of photosynthesis used by plants. C4 plants increase their photosynthetic efficiency by reducing or suppressing photorespiration, which mainly occurs under low atmospheric CO2 concentration, high light, high temperature, drought, and salinity.[2][3] There are roughly 8,100 known C4 species, which belong to at least 61 distinct evolutionary lineages in 19 families (as per APG IV classification[4]) of flowering plants.[1] Among these are important crops such as maize, sorghum and sugarcane, but also weeds and invasive plants.[1] Although only 3% of flowering plant species use C4 carbon fixation, they account for 23% of global primary production.[5] The repeated, convergent C4 evolution from C3 ancestors has spurred hopes to bio-engineer the C4 pathway into C3 crops such as rice.[1][5]
C4 photosynthesis probably first evolved 30–35 million years ago in the Oligocene, and further origins occurred since, most of them in the last 15 million years. C4 plants are mainly found in tropical and warm-temperate regions, predominantly in open grasslands where they are often dominant. While most are graminoids, other growth forms such as forbs, vines, shrubs, and even some trees and aquatic plants are also known among C4 plants.[1]
C4 plants are usually identified by their higher 13C/12C isotopic ratio compared to C3 plants or their typical leaf anatomy.[5] The distribution of C4 lineages among plants has been determined through phylogenetics and was considered well known as of 2016[update]. Monocots – mainly grasses (Poaceae) and sedges (Cyperaceae) – account for around 80% of C4 species, but they are also found in the eudicots.[1] Moreover, almost all C4 plants are herbaceus, with the notable exception of some woody species from the Euphorbia genus, such as the tree Euphorbia olowaluana.[6] The reason behind C4 metabolism extreme rarity in trees is debated: hypotheses vary from a possible reduction in photosinthetic quantum yield under dense canopy conditions, coupled with an increased metabolic energy consumption (inherent to C4 metabolism itself), to less efficient sunflecks utilization.[7]
The following list presents known C4 lineages by family, based on the overview by Sage (2016).[1] They correspond to single species or clades thought to have acquired the C4 pathway independently. In some lineages that also include C3 and C3–C4 intermediate species, the C4 pathway may have evolved more than once.[1]
Blepharis attenuata (Acanthaceae) grows in deserts.Shadscale (Atriplex confertifolia, Amaranthaceae) is a halophytic shrub common in steppes of western North America.[1]Black saxaul (Haloxylon ammodendron, Amaranthaceae) provided fuel for caravans following the Silk Road in Central Asia.[1]Cleome gynandra (Cleomaceae) has been a C4 model plant.[1]Papyrus (Cyperus papyrus, Cyperaceae) has been of major cultural importance.[1]Spotted spurge (Euphorbia maculata, Euphorbiaceae) commonly grows in sidewalk cracks in North America.[8]The aquatic Egeria densa (Hydrocharitaceae) uses the C4 pathway under high temperature and light intensity.Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum, Poaceae) is grown for sugar and bioethanol.[1]Purslane (Portulaca oleracea, Portulacaceae), a weed and ancient vegetable, uses both C4 and CAM photosynthesis.[1][9]Rhodes grass (Chloris gayana, Poaceae) is a major forage grass in tropical areas.[1]The spiny fruits of puncture vine (Tribulus terrestris, Zygophyllaceae) may even puncture tyres.[1]
^ abcdefghijklmnopCite error: The named reference Sage2016 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
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^Elliott, Liam (2020-05-22). "To C4 or not to C4 if you're a tree? Some possible answers". Botany One. Retrieved 2024-04-30.
^Young, Sophie N R.; Sack, Lawren; Sporck-Koehler, Margaret J.; Lundgren, Marjorie R. (2020). "Why is C4 photosynthesis so rare in trees?". Journal of Experimental Botany. 71 (16): 4629–4638. doi:10.1093/jxb/eraa234. PMC 7410182. PMID 32409834. Retrieved 2024-05-01.
^Cite error: The named reference YangBerry2011 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
^Cite error: The named reference KochKennedy1982 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
In botany, C4 carbon fixation is one of three known methods of photosynthesis used by plants. C4plants increase their photosynthetic efficiency by reducing...
C4 carbon fixation or the Hatch–Slack pathway is one of three known photosynthetic processes of carbon fixation in plants. It owes the names to the 1960s...
transpiration - a high cost avoided by plants able to employ CAM.[What percentage is lost in CAM plants?] The C4 pathway bears resemblance to CAM; both...
Cleome is a genus of flowering plants in the family Cleomaceae, commonly known as spider flowers, spider plants, spider weeds, or bee plants. Previously, it...
as resulting from the rise ofC4plants on a global scale. While C4 enhances the efficiency of RuBisCO, the concentration of carbon is highly energy intensive...
seeds are not visible. P. grandiflora is one of the few plants that is a C4/CAM intermediate, utilizing both C4 carbon fixation and Crassulacean acid metabolism...
"Job's tears", and bluestem grasses, is C4. Around 46 percent of grass species are C4plants. The name Poaceae was given by John Hendley Barnhart in 1895...
times. Corn has been used to study mechanisms of photosynthesis and phloem loading of sugar in C4plants. The single celled green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii...
similar to that ofC4plants and yields characteristic C4 fractionation values of approximately -11‰. However, in the afternoon, CAM plants may open their...
been found in these plants. Although most of the family use the more common C3 photosynthesis pathway, around 800 species are C4plants; this makes the Amaranthaceae...
Young, S. N. R., & Lundgren, M. R. (2023). C4 photosynthesis in Paulownia? A case of inaccurate citations. Plants, People, Planet, 5( 2), 292– 303. https://doi...
cover of 5 mm having a negative effect on germination.[citation needed] P. oleracea is one of the very few plants able to utilize both CAM and C4 photosynthesis...
BPMN, C4, Computer network diagram, ERD, Gantt chart, Mind map, and WBD), as well as visualisation of JSON and YAML files. The language ofPlantUML is...
sodium: Essential for C4plants rather C3 Substitution of K by Na: Plants can be classified into four groups: Group A—a high proportion of K can be replaced...
Citroën C4 Picasso and then on the second-generation Peugeot 308 and second-generation Peugeot 408. The later iteration of the EMP2 has a degree of flexibility...
the diet of the extinct giant kangaroo Procoptodon goliah. Stable isotopic data suggested that their diet consisted ofplants that used the C4 photosynthetic...
indica". The PLANTS Database (plants.usda.gov). Greensboro, North Carolina: National Plant Data Team. Retrieved 18 January 2016. BSBI List 2007 (xls)....
cosmopolitan group of more than 50 species which make up the genus of annual or short-lived perennial plants collectively known as amaranths. Some of the more well...
the S4 is the top-of-the-line trim of the A4 family. A single turbocharged 2.2-litre inline five-cylinder powered the original C4 version, and a 2.7-litre...
moisture. The plant fixes carbon through the C4 pathway. At maturity, the flowerheads are approximately 4 centimetres (1.6 in) long and the plant grows up...
photosynthesis were shown to increase by 30–50% in C3 plants, and 10–25% in C4 under doubled CO2 levels. The existence of a feedback mechanism results a phenotypic...
therefore a polyphyletic grouping. Other examples of polyphyletic groups are algae, C4 photosynthetic plants, and edentates. Many taxonomists aim to avoid...
crabgrass) follow a C4 photosynthetic pathway that produces δ13C values averaging about −12.5‰. It follows that eating these different plants will affect the...
consumed C4 carbon fixation plants throughout the year. Because all other wild animals (like deer and bear) found at the site only consumed C3 plants, it suggests...
'nhiệt điện sinh khối'". tuoitre.vn. vi:Nh%C3%A0_m%C3%A1y_nhi%E1%BB%87t_%C4%91i%E1%BB%87n_M%E1%BA%A1o_Kh%C3%AA, oldid 26513659[circular reference] "Mong...
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