Death march, population transfer, ethnic cleansing, genocide
Deaths
8,000+ (lowest estimate)
Perpetrators
United States federal government
United States Army
State militias
Motive
Expansionist desire to acquire Native American land east of the Mississippi River (Manifest Destiny)
Anti-Native American racism[1]
Part of a series on
Genocide of Indigenous peoples
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Ecocide
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Settler colonialism
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Effacer le tableau
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Trail of Tears
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Pacific Northwest smallpox epidemic
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Vergonha
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Palestinian genocide accusation
Sayfo
Western Sahara conflict
Yazidi genocide
Related topics
Outline of genocide studies
Bibliography of genocide studies
Genocides in history
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Part of a series on
Native Americans
in the United States
History
Paleo-Indians
Lithic stage
Archaic period in the Americas
Formative stage
Classic stage
Post-Classic stage
Woodland period
Age of Discovery
European colonization of the Americas
Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas
Genocide
Slavery
Slavery in the United States
Partus sequitur ventrem
Indian Removal Act
Trail of Tears
Native American slave ownership
Indian Territory
American Civil War
Dawes Rolls
Cultural assimilation of Native Americans
Racism against Native Americans
Indian Appropriations Act
Racial Integrity Act
Indian Citizenship Act of 1924
Indian Reorganization Act of 1934
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Blood quantum laws
Native Americans and World War II
American Indian boarding schools
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Texas–Indian wars (1836–1877) / Comanche Wars (1836–1877) / (1858)|Antelope Hills expedition / Comanche Campaign (1867–1875) / Red River War (1874–1875) / Buffalo Hunters' War (1876–1877)
Cayuse War
Apache Wars (1849–1924) / Jicarilla War (1849–1855) / Chiricahua Wars (1860–1886) / Tonto War (1871–1875) / Victorio's War (1879–1880) / Geronimo's War (1881–1886) / Post 1887 Apache Wars period (1887–1924)
Yuma War
Ute Wars(1850–1923) / Battle at Fort Utah (1850) / Walker War (1853–1854) / Tintic War (1856) / Black Hawk War (1865–1872) / White River War (1879) / Ute War (1887) / Bluff War (1914–1915) / Bluff Skirmish (1921)
Posey War (1923)
Sioux Wars (1854–1891) / First Sioux War (1854-1856) / Dakota War (1862) / Colorado War (1863–1865) / Powder River War (1865) / Red Cloud's War (1866–1868) / Great Sioux War (1876–1877) / Northern Cheyenne Exodus (1878-1879) / Ghost Dance War (1890–1891)
Rogue River Wars (1855–1856)
Yakima War (1855–1858) / Puget Sound War (1855–1856) / Coeur d'Alene War (1858)
Mohave War(1858–1859)
Navajo Wars (1849–1866)
Paiute War(1860)
Yavapai Wars(1861–1875)
Snake War (1864–1869)
Hualapai War (1865–1870)
Modoc War (1872–1873)
Nez Perce War (1877)
Bannock War (1878)
Crow War (1887)
Bannock Uprising (1895)
Yaqui Uprising (1896)
Battle of Sugar Point (1898)
Crazy Snake Rebellion (1909)
Last Massacre (1911)
Battle of Kelley Creek (1911)
Battle of Bear Valley (1918)
Political movements
Civil rights movement
Self-determination
Nationalism
American Indian Movement (AIM)
Red Power Movement
Occupation of Alcatraz
Trail of Broken Treaties
Occupation of Wounded Knee
MMIW (Red handprint)
Religion
American Indian Religious Freedom Act
Christianity
Eagle Feather law
Mormonism
Traditional religions
Native American church
Sun Dance
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Groups
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)
Native American Rights Fund (NARF)
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Women of All Red Nations (WARN)
The International Indian Treaty Council (IITC)
Ethnic subdivisions
Black Indians
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
Louisiana Creole
Languages
English
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Native American languages
Demographics
Neighborhoods
Societal statistics
Reservations
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Geography
by region
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Pacific Northwest
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by state
Alaska
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Lists
Native Americans
artists
actors
war leaders
musicians
congressional politicians
Native American Medal of Honor recipients
List of federally recognized tribes
List of federally recognized tribes by state
List of Indian reservations in the United States
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The Indian removal was the United States government policy of ethnic cleansing through forced displacement of self-governing tribes of American Indians from their ancestral homelands in the eastern United States to lands west of the Mississippi River—specifically, to a designated Indian Territory (roughly, present-day Oklahoma), which many scholars have labeled a genocide.[2][3][4] The Indian Removal Act of 1830, the key law which authorized the removal of Native tribes, was signed into law by United States president Andrew Jackson on May 28, 1830. Although Jackson took a hard line on Indian removal, the law was enforced primarily during the Martin Van Buren administration. After the enactment of the Act, approximately 60,000 members of the Cherokee, Muscogee (Creek), Seminole, Chickasaw, and Choctaw nations (including thousands of their black slaves) were forcibly removed from their ancestral homelands, with thousands dying during the Trail of Tears.[5][6][7][8]
Indian removal, a popular policy among incoming settlers, was a consequence of actions first by the European colonists and then later on by the American settlers in the nation during the thirteen colonies and then after the revolution, in the United States of America also until the mid-20th century.[9][10]
The policy traced its origins to the administration of James Monroe, although it addressed conflicts between the American Settlers and Indigenous tribes which had occurred since the 17th century and were escalating into the early 19th century (as Settlers pushed westward in the cultural belief of manifest destiny). Historical views of Indian removal have been reevaluated since that time. Widespread contemporary acceptance of the policy, due in part to the popular embrace of the concept of manifest destiny, has given way to a more somber perspective. Historians have often described the removal of American Indians as paternalism,[11][12] ethnic cleansing,[13] or genocide.[14][15]
^Crepelle, Adam (2021). "LIES, DAMN LIES, AND FEDERAL INDIAN LAW: THE ETHICS OF CITING RACIST PRECEDENT IN CONTEMPORARY FEDERAL INDIAN LAW" (PDF). N.y.u. Review of Law & Social Change. 44: 565. Retrieved August 19, 2023.
^Cite error: The named reference NOTE2 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
^Cite error: The named reference Anderson2014 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
^Cite error: The named reference AmericanIndianSmithsonian was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
^Thornton, Russell (1991). "The Demography of the Trail of Tears Period: A New Estimate of Cherokee Population Losses". In William L. Anderson (ed.). Cherokee Removal: Before and After. pp. 75–93.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
^Prucha, Francis Paul (1995). The Great Father: The United States Government and the American Indians. U of Nebraska Press. pp. 241 note 58. ISBN 0803287348.
^Ehle, John (2011). Trail of Tears: The Rise and Fall of the Cherokee Nation. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. pp. 390–392. ISBN 9780307793836.
^"A Brief History of the Trail of Tears". www.cherokee.org. Archived from the original on October 18, 2017. Retrieved October 17, 2017.
^Cite error: The named reference Kanth2009 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
^Cite error: The named reference FinkelmanKennon2008 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
^Cite error: The named reference Wilentz was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
^Cite error: The named reference B&C was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
^Cite error: The named reference Zinn2012 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
^"Indian Removal Act: The Genocide of Native Americans – UAB Institute for Human Rights Blog". sites.uab.edu. Retrieved October 16, 2021.
^Stannard, David (1992). American Holocaust: The Conquest of the New World. Oxford University Press. p. 256. ISBN 978-0195085570.
Indianremoval was the United States government policy of ethnic cleansing through forced displacement of self-governing tribes of American Indians from...
The IndianRemoval Act of 1830 was signed into law on May 28, 1830, by United States President Andrew Jackson. The law, as described by Congress, provided...
were ethnically cleansed by the United States government. As part of Indianremoval, members of the Cherokee, Muscogee, Seminole, Chickasaw, and Choctaw...
Indianremovals in Indiana followed a series of the land cession treaties made between 1795 and 1846 that led to the removal of most of the native tribes...
to inhabit following the removals eventually became Indian reservations. In 1851, the United States Congress passed the Indian Appropriations Act which...
under pressure by settlers in many regions to expel Indians from their areas. The IndianRemoval Act of 1830 stated the "authorizing of the President...
again in 1828, defeating Adams in a landslide. In 1830, he signed the IndianRemoval Act. This act, which has been described as ethnic cleansing, displaced...
Andrew Jackson is often credited with initiating IndianRemoval, because Congress passed the IndianRemoval Act in 1831, during his presidency, and also because...
19th-century policy of Indianremoval. After the American Civil War (1861–1865), the policy of the U.S. government was one of assimilation. Indian Territory later...
lands to the US. During the 1830s IndianRemoval, most of the Muscogee Confederacy were forcibly relocated to Indian Territory. The Muscogee (Creek) Nation...
The Cherokee removal (May 25, 1838 – 1839), part of the Indianremoval, refers to the removal of an estimated 15,500 Cherokees and 1,500 African-American...
1817, prior to Indianremoval. They are related to the Cherokee who were later forcibly relocated there in the 1830s under the IndianRemoval Act. The Eastern...
As part of IndianRemoval, despite not having waged war against the United States, the majority of Choctaw were forcibly relocated to Indian Territory...
Clifton, "Wisconsin Death March: Explaining the Extremes in Old Northwest IndianRemoval", in Transactions of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters...
under the Indianremoval policy, the U.S. federal government relocated most Lenape remaining in the Eastern United States to the Indian Territory and...
Indianremovals in Ohio started in the late eighteenth century after the American victory in the Revolutionary War and the consequent opening of the Northwestern...
military occupations, removals of Indigenous peoples from their ancestral territories via Indianremoval policies, forced removal of Native American children...
and after the Indianremovals of most members of the Five Civilized Tribes. In the 1830s, President Andrew Jackson signed the IndianRemoval Act of 1830...
accelerated its westward expansion, internal political pressure grew for "Indianremoval", but the pace of treaty-making grew regardless. The Civil War forged...
Walter (1979). "Southeastern Indians before Removal, Prehistory, Contact, Decline". Southeastern Indians: Since the Removal Era. Athens, Georgia: University...
and activist for the rights of American Indians in the United States, and a leading opponent of the Indianremoval policy of the United States government...
justified the violent expansion westward, leading to the passage of the IndianRemoval Act of 1830 and armed clashes. The dehumanization and demonization of...
century, the U.S. federal government forcibly removed them under the 1830 IndianRemoval Act to areas west of the Mississippi River; these lands would eventually...
new era in Indian-Anglo American relations, as he initiated a policy of Indianremoval. Previous presidents had at times supported removal or attempts...
they leave Florida altogether and relocate to Indian Territory (modern day Oklahoma) as per the IndianRemoval Act of 1830. A few bands reluctantly complied...
States encouraged settlement of the east side of the Mississippi and removal of Indians to the west. A disputed 1804 treaty between Quashquame and William...
policy under Jackson had sought to move Indian tribes to lands west of the Mississippi River through the IndianRemoval Act of 1830, and the federal government...