Immigration and crime information

Immigration and crime refers to the relationship between criminal activity and the phenomenon of immigration. The academic literature and official statistics provide mixed findings for the relationship between immigration and crime. Research in the United States tends to suggest that immigration either has no impact on the crime rate or even that immigrants are less prone to crime.^[1]^[2]^[3]^[4]^[5]^[6]^{[excessive citations]} A meta-analysis of 51 studies from 1994–2014 on the relationship between immigration and crime in the United States found that, overall, the immigration-crime association is negative, but the relationship is very weak and there is significant variation in findings across studies.^[7] This is in line with a 2009 review of high-quality studies conducted in the United States that also found a negative relationship.^[8]

Research and statistics in some other, mainly European countries suggest a positive link between immigration and crime: immigrants from particular countries are often overrepresented in crime figures.^[9]^[10]^[11]^[12]^[13]^[14]^[15]^[16]^[17]^[18]^[19]^[20]^[21]^[22]^[23]^[24]^[25]^{[excessive citations]} The over-representation of immigrants in the criminal justice systems of several countries may be due to socioeconomic factors, imprisonment for migration offenses, and racial and ethnic discrimination by police and the judicial system.^[26]^[27]^[28]^[29]^[30]^[31]^{[excessive citations]} The relationship between immigration and terrorism is understudied, but existing research is inconclusive.^[32]^[33]^[34] Research on the relationship between refugee migration and crime is scarce and existing empirical evidence is often contradictory.^[35]^[36] According to statistics from some countries, asylum seekers are overrepresented in crime figures.^[37]^[13]^[38]^{[failed verification]}

^ Baker, S. R. (2011). "Effects of Immigrant Legalization on Crime: The 1986 Immigration Reform and Control Act". SSRN Electronic Journal. doi:10.2139/ssrn.1829368. S2CID 20388764.
^ The Integration of Immigrants into American Society. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2015. doi:10.17226/21746. ISBN 978-0-309-37398-2. Archived from the original on 2 April 2020. Retrieved 23 June 2018. Americans have long believed that immigrants are more likely than natives to commit crimes and that rising immigration leads to rising crime... This belief is remarkably resilient to the contrary evidence that immigrants are in fact much less likely than natives to commit crimes.
^ Papadopoulos, Georgios (2 July 2014). "Immigration status and property crime: an application of estimators for underreported outcomes". IZA Journal of Migration. 3 (1): 12. doi:10.1186/2193-9039-3-12. ISSN 2193-9039.
^ Jaitman, Laura; Machin, Stephen (25 October 2013). "Crime and immigration: new evidence from England and Wales". IZA Journal of Migration. 2 (1): 19. doi:10.1186/2193-9039-2-19. ISSN 2193-9039.
^ Bell, Brian; Fasani, Francesco; Machin, Stephen (10 October 2012). "Crime and Immigration: Evidence from Large Immigrant Waves" (PDF). Review of Economics and Statistics. 95 (4): 1278–1290. doi:10.1162/REST_a_00337. ISSN 0034-6535. S2CID 11566473. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 October 2022. Retrieved 18 August 2019.
^ Bell, Brian; Machin, Stephen (1 February 2013). "Immigrant Enclaves and Crime" (PDF). Journal of Regional Science. 53 (1): 118–141. Bibcode:2013JRegS..53..118B. doi:10.1111/jors.12003. ISSN 1467-9787. S2CID 19138479. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 February 2022. Retrieved 18 August 2019.
^ Ousey, Graham C.; Kubrin, Charis E. (2018). "Immigration and Crime: Assessing a Contentious Issue". Annual Review of Criminology. 1 (1): 63–84. doi:10.1146/annurev-criminol-032317-092026.
^ Lee, Matthew T.; Martinez Jr., Ramiro (2009). "Immigration reduces crime: an emerging scholarly consensus". Immigration, Crime and Justice. Emerald Group Publishing. pp. 3–16. ISBN 978-1-84855-438-2. Archived from the original on 24 February 2024. Retrieved 25 May 2016.
^ "Fængselsformand: Udenlandske indsatte udfordrer os helt vildt". DR (in Danish). 7 July 2017. Archived from the original on 3 October 2019. Retrieved 3 October 2019.
^ "Indvandrere i Danmark 2015" [Immigrants in Denmark 2015] (in Danish). Statistics Denmark. 2015. pp. 93, 100 & others. Archived from the original on 15 February 2016. Retrieved 18 April 2019.
^ Cite error: The named reference :53 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
^ "Foreigners figure high in rape statistics". Archived from the original on 14 March 2012. When the victims file their accusations, as many as 17% of the women involved believed the rapist to be of foreign extraction. This is a pretty huge figure, given that there are only some 85,000 foreigners living in Finland, or just 1.65% of the population.
^ ^a ^b "Prevention improvement is solution to refugee crime, study finds". 3 January 2018. Archived from the original on 19 June 2018. Retrieved 19 June 2018.
^ Buonanno, Paolo; Drago, Francesco; Galbiati, Roberto; Zanella, Giulio (1 July 2011). "Crime in Europe and the United States: dissecting the 'reversal of misfortunes'". Economic Policy. 26 (67): 347–385. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0327.2011.00267.x. ISSN 0266-4658. S2CID 3747500. Archived from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 18 August 2019.
^ "Kriminalität im Kontext von Zuwanderung - Bundeslagebild 2017". BKA. 2018. pp. 27, 55, 61. Archived from the original on 2 August 2018. Retrieved 3 September 2019. ^{[verification needed]}
^ Mayntz, Gregor (4 February 2019). "Jeder Dritte in NRW: Zahl der Ausländer in Gefängnissen auf Rekordhoch". RP ONLINE (in German). Archived from the original on 22 February 2019. Retrieved 22 February 2019.
^ Pancevski, Bojan (15 October 2018). "An Ice-Cream Truck Slaying, Party Drugs and Real-Estate Kings: Ethnic Clans Clash in Berlin's Underworld". The Wall Street Journal. ISSN 0099-9660. Archived from the original on 20 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
^ "Greeks confront crime wave amid austerity". BBC News. 16 August 2012. Archived from the original on 9 May 2021. Retrieved 21 June 2018.
^ ispisito (28 February 2019). "Jihadist Radicalization in Italian Prisons: A Primer". ISPI. Archived from the original on 9 March 2019. Retrieved 20 March 2019.
^ "Veel jonge criminele allochtonen in Rotterdam". RTV Rijnmond. Archived from the original on 2 January 2013.
^ "Schokkende cijfers criminaliteit Marokkanen Rotterdam". Elsevier. Archived from the original on 22 February 2013.
^ Couttenier, Mathieu; Petrencu, Veronica; Rohner, Dominic; Thoenig, Mathias (2019). "The Violent Legacy of Conflict: Evidence on Asylum Seekers, Crime, and Public Policy in Switzerland". American Economic Review. 109 (12): 4378–4425. doi:10.1257/aer.20170263.
^ "Immigration, Crime and Criminal Justice Systems". Transnational Criminology Manual Volume I (PDF). Wolf Legal Publishers. 2010. pp. 659–673. ISBN 978-90-5850-573-6. Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 October 2013. Retrieved 5 December 2012.
^ Achbari, W., Leerkes, A.S., 2017, Van perceptie naar feit — Asielzoekers en buurtcriminaliteit WODC, Cahiers 2017-16
^ Bianchi, Milo; Buonanno, Paolo; Pinotti, Paolo (1 December 2012). "Do Immigrants Cause Crime?" (PDF). Journal of the European Economic Association. 10 (6): 1318–1347. doi:10.1111/j.1542-4774.2012.01085.x. ISSN 1542-4774. Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 September 2022. Retrieved 18 August 2019.
^ Bell, Brian (2014). "Crime and immigration". IZA World of Labor. doi:10.15185/izawol.33. Archived from the original on 31 August 2022. Retrieved 29 January 2016.
^ Crocitti, Stefania (2014). Immigration, Crime, and Criminalization in Italy – Oxford Handbooks. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199859016.013.029.
^ West, Jeremy (February 2018). "Racial Bias in Police Investigations" (PDF). Working Paper. Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 March 2019. Retrieved 16 March 2018.
^ Hällsten, Martin; Szulkin, Ryszard; Sarnecki, Jerzy (1 May 2013). "Crime as a Price of Inequality? The Gap in Registered Crime between Childhood Immigrants, Children of Immigrants and Children of Native Swedes". British Journal of Criminology. 53 (3): 456–481. doi:10.1093/bjc/azt005. ISSN 0007-0955.
^ Colombo, Asher (1 November 2013). "Foreigners and immigrants in Italy's penal and administrative detention systems". European Journal of Criminology. 10 (6): 746–759. doi:10.1177/1477370813495128. ISSN 1477-3708. S2CID 145099179.
^ Parmar, Alpa (2014). Ethnicities, Racism, and Crime in England and Wales – Oxford Handbooks. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199859016.013.014.
^ Helbling, Marc; Meierrieks, Daniel (2020). "Terrorism and Migration: An Overview". British Journal of Political Science. 52 (2): 977–996. doi:10.1017/S0007123420000587. ISSN 0007-1234.
^ "Centre for Economic Policy Research". cepr.org. 26 May 2017. Archived from the original on 1 August 2022. Retrieved 15 August 2017.
^ Bove, Vincenzo; Böhmelt, Tobias (11 February 2016). "Does Immigration Induce Terrorism?" (PDF). The Journal of Politics. 78 (2): 572–588. doi:10.1086/684679. ISSN 0022-3816. S2CID 51947927. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 April 2022. Retrieved 18 August 2019.
^ Fasani, Francesco; Mastrobuoni, Giovanni; Owens, Emily G.; Pinotti, Paolo (2019). "Refugee Waves and Crime: Evidence from EU Countries". Does Immigration Increase Crime?: Migration Policy and the Creation of the Criminal Immigrant. Cambridge University Press. pp. 129–155. doi:10.1017/9781108626286.006. ISBN 978-1-108-62628-6. S2CID 216605573.
^ Masterson, Daniel; Yasenov, Vasil (2021). "Does Halting Refugee Resettlement Reduce Crime? Evidence from the US Refugee Ban". American Political Science Review. 115 (3): 1066–1073. doi:10.1017/S0003055421000150. ISSN 0003-0554.
^ Alkousaa, Riham (3 January 2018). "Violent crime rises in Germany and is attributed to refugees". U.S. Archived from the original on 3 February 2021. Retrieved 19 June 2018.
^ "Ausländerkriminalität in der Schweiz". Vimentis. Archived from the original on 30 August 2009. Retrieved 1 October 2009.

[1] Baker, S. R. (2011). "Effects of Immigrant Legalization on Crime: The 1986 Immigration Reform and Control Act". SSRN Electronic Journal. doi:10.2139/ssrn.1829368. S2CID 20388764.

[Integration-2] The Integration of Immigrants into American Society. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2015. doi:10.17226/21746. ISBN 978-0-309-37398-2. Archived from the original on 2 April 2020. Retrieved 23 June 2018. Americans have long believed that immigrants are more likely than natives to commit crimes and that rising immigration leads to rising crime... This belief is remarkably resilient to the contrary evidence that immigrants are in fact much less likely than natives to commit crimes.

[:8-3] Papadopoulos, Georgios (2 July 2014). "Immigration status and property crime: an application of estimators for underreported outcomes". IZA Journal of Migration. 3 (1): 12. doi:10.1186/2193-9039-3-12. ISSN 2193-9039.

[NewEvidence-4] Jaitman, Laura; Machin, Stephen (25 October 2013). "Crime and immigration: new evidence from England and Wales". IZA Journal of Migration. 2 (1): 19. doi:10.1186/2193-9039-2-19. ISSN 2193-9039.

[:4abc-5] Bell, Brian; Fasani, Francesco; Machin, Stephen (10 October 2012). "Crime and Immigration: Evidence from Large Immigrant Waves" (PDF). Review of Economics and Statistics. 95 (4): 1278–1290. doi:10.1162/REST_a_00337. ISSN 0034-6535. S2CID 11566473. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 October 2022. Retrieved 18 August 2019.

[:6-6] Bell, Brian; Machin, Stephen (1 February 2013). "Immigrant Enclaves and Crime" (PDF). Journal of Regional Science. 53 (1): 118–141. Bibcode:2013JRegS..53..118B. doi:10.1111/jors.12003. ISSN 1467-9787. S2CID 19138479. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 February 2022. Retrieved 18 August 2019.

[7] Ousey, Graham C.; Kubrin, Charis E. (2018). "Immigration and Crime: Assessing a Contentious Issue". Annual Review of Criminology. 1 (1): 63–84. doi:10.1146/annurev-criminol-032317-092026.

[8] Lee, Matthew T.; Martinez Jr., Ramiro (2009). "Immigration reduces crime: an emerging scholarly consensus". Immigration, Crime and Justice. Emerald Group Publishing. pp. 3–16. ISBN 978-1-84855-438-2. Archived from the original on 24 February 2024. Retrieved 25 May 2016.

[DR2017-9] "Fængselsformand: Udenlandske indsatte udfordrer os helt vildt". DR (in Danish). 7 July 2017. Archived from the original on 3 October 2019. Retrieved 3 October 2019.

[StatsDenmark-10] "Indvandrere i Danmark 2015" [Immigrants in Denmark 2015] (in Danish). Statistics Denmark. 2015. pp. 93, 100 & others. Archived from the original on 15 February 2016. Retrieved 18 April 2019.

[:53-11] Cite error: The named reference :53 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

[:55-12] "Foreigners figure high in rape statistics". Archived from the original on 14 March 2012. When the victims file their accusations, as many as 17% of the women involved believed the rapist to be of foreign extraction. This is a pretty huge figure, given that there are only some 85,000 foreigners living in Finland, or just 1.65% of the population.

[TheLocal2018-13] "Prevention improvement is solution to refugee crime, study finds". 3 January 2018. Archived from the original on 19 June 2018. Retrieved 19 June 2018.

[CrimeInEurope2011-14] Buonanno, Paolo; Drago, Francesco; Galbiati, Roberto; Zanella, Giulio (1 July 2011). "Crime in Europe and the United States: dissecting the 'reversal of misfortunes'". Economic Policy. 26 (67): 347–385. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0327.2011.00267.x. ISSN 0266-4658. S2CID 3747500. Archived from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 18 August 2019.

[:58-15] "Kriminalität im Kontext von Zuwanderung - Bundeslagebild 2017". BKA. 2018. pp. 27, 55, 61. Archived from the original on 2 August 2018. Retrieved 3 September 2019. ^{[verification needed]}

[:62-16] Mayntz, Gregor (4 February 2019). "Jeder Dritte in NRW: Zahl der Ausländer in Gefängnissen auf Rekordhoch". RP ONLINE (in German). Archived from the original on 22 February 2019. Retrieved 22 February 2019.

[wsj20181016-17] Pancevski, Bojan (15 October 2018). "An Ice-Cream Truck Slaying, Party Drugs and Real-Estate Kings: Ethnic Clans Clash in Berlin's Underworld". The Wall Street Journal. ISSN 0099-9660. Archived from the original on 20 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.

[bbc.co.uk-18] "Greeks confront crime wave amid austerity". BBC News. 16 August 2012. Archived from the original on 9 May 2021. Retrieved 21 June 2018.

[:59-19] spisito (28 February 2019). "Jihadist Radicalization in Italian Prisons: A Primer". ISPI. Archived from the original on 9 March 2019. Retrieved 20 March 2019.

[:60-20] "Veel jonge criminele allochtonen in Rotterdam". RTV Rijnmond. Archived from the original on 2 January 2013.

[:61-21] "Schokkende cijfers criminaliteit Marokkanen Rotterdam". Elsevier. Archived from the original on 22 February 2013.

[:30-22] Couttenier, Mathieu; Petrencu, Veronica; Rohner, Dominic; Thoenig, Mathias (2019). "The Violent Legacy of Conflict: Evidence on Asylum Seekers, Crime, and Public Policy in Switzerland". American Economic Review. 109 (12): 4378–4425. doi:10.1257/aer.20170263.

[:63-23] "Immigration, Crime and Criminal Justice Systems". Transnational Criminology Manual Volume I (PDF). Wolf Legal Publishers. 2010. pp. 659–673. ISBN 978-90-5850-573-6. Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 October 2013. Retrieved 5 December 2012.

[:64-24] Achbari, W., Leerkes, A.S., 2017, Van perceptie naar feit — Asielzoekers en buurtcriminaliteit WODC, Cahiers 2017-16

[:21-25] Bianchi, Milo; Buonanno, Paolo; Pinotti, Paolo (1 December 2012). "Do Immigrants Cause Crime?" (PDF). Journal of the European Economic Association. 10 (6): 1318–1347. doi:10.1111/j.1542-4774.2012.01085.x. ISSN 1542-4774. Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 September 2022. Retrieved 18 August 2019.

[:14-26] Bell, Brian (2014). "Crime and immigration". IZA World of Labor. doi:10.15185/izawol.33. Archived from the original on 31 August 2022. Retrieved 29 January 2016.

[:27-27] Crocitti, Stefania (2014). Immigration, Crime, and Criminalization in Italy – Oxford Handbooks. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199859016.013.029.

[28] West, Jeremy (February 2018). "Racial Bias in Police Investigations" (PDF). Working Paper. Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 March 2019. Retrieved 16 March 2018.

[:12-29] Hällsten, Martin; Szulkin, Ryszard; Sarnecki, Jerzy (1 May 2013). "Crime as a Price of Inequality? The Gap in Registered Crime between Childhood Immigrants, Children of Immigrants and Children of Native Swedes". British Journal of Criminology. 53 (3): 456–481. doi:10.1093/bjc/azt005. ISSN 0007-0955.

[ItalyPenal-30] Colombo, Asher (1 November 2013). "Foreigners and immigrants in Italy's penal and administrative detention systems". European Journal of Criminology. 10 (6): 746–759. doi:10.1177/1477370813495128. ISSN 1477-3708. S2CID 145099179.

[31] Parmar, Alpa (2014). Ethnicities, Racism, and Crime in England and Wales – Oxford Handbooks. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199859016.013.014.

[:19-32] Helbling, Marc; Meierrieks, Daniel (2020). "Terrorism and Migration: An Overview". British Journal of Political Science. 52 (2): 977–996. doi:10.1017/S0007123420000587. ISSN 0007-1234.

[:46-33] "Centre for Economic Policy Research". cepr.org. 26 May 2017. Archived from the original on 1 August 2022. Retrieved 15 August 2017.

[Induce-34] Bove, Vincenzo; Böhmelt, Tobias (11 February 2016). "Does Immigration Induce Terrorism?" (PDF). The Journal of Politics. 78 (2): 572–588. doi:10.1086/684679. ISSN 0022-3816. S2CID 51947927. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 April 2022. Retrieved 18 August 2019.

[35] Fasani, Francesco; Mastrobuoni, Giovanni; Owens, Emily G.; Pinotti, Paolo (2019). "Refugee Waves and Crime: Evidence from EU Countries". Does Immigration Increase Crime?: Migration Policy and the Creation of the Criminal Immigrant. Cambridge University Press. pp. 129–155. doi:10.1017/9781108626286.006. ISBN 978-1-108-62628-6. S2CID 216605573.

[:25-36] Masterson, Daniel; Yasenov, Vasil (2021). "Does Halting Refugee Resettlement Reduce Crime? Evidence from the US Refugee Ban". American Political Science Review. 115 (3): 1066–1073. doi:10.1017/S0003055421000150. ISSN 0003-0554.

[Reuters2018-37] Alkousaa, Riham (3 January 2018). "Violent crime rises in Germany and is attributed to refugees". U.S. Archived from the original on 3 February 2021. Retrieved 19 June 2018.

[Vimentis-38] "Ausländerkriminalität in der Schweiz". Vimentis. Archived from the original on 30 August 2009. Retrieved 1 October 2009.

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