Collaboration and intimate relationships between French women and Nazi occupiers
A woman's head is shaved as punishment for collaboration horizontale. Montélimar area, August 1944.
Horizontal collaboration (French: Collaboration horizontale, collaboration féminine or collaboration sentimentale) referred to the romantic or sexual relationship many women in France had or allegedly had with members of the German occupation forces after the Fall of France in 1940. The existence of these liaisons had been a major reason for young men to join the French Resistance.[1] After the Liberation of France from German occupation, such women were often punished for collaboration with the German occupiers.
After the war, throughout France, women accused of collaboration had their heads shaved.[2] These women were referred to as "femme tondue" (shaven women) and were easily identifiable. [3] In many of the 20,000 cases, the women in question had performed only professional services for the occupying Germans, rather than being engaged in sexual relationships with them.[4] Due to the head-shaving in public spaces being used to punish women thought to be collaborators, and the presence of many foreign photographers in post-war France, thousands of photos exist of women being subjected to this punishment.[5]
"Collaboration horizontale" is believed to have produced 200,000 French babies with German fathers.[6] Since 2009 Germany has offered these children of "the other bank of the Rhine" citizenship, after French foreign minister Bernard Kouchner lobbied for their recognition.[7] The same phenomenon and later punishments occurred in other parts of Europe that were occupied by Germany during the war.
^Crowdy, Terry (2007). French Resistance Fighter: France's Secret Army(PDF). Oxford: Osprey Publishing. p. 8. ISBN 978-1-84603-076-5. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-07-19. Retrieved 2020-09-14.
^Fabrice Virgili (1995). "Les "tondues" à la Libération :le corps des femmes, enjeu d'une réaproppriation". Clio. Femmes, genre, histoire (1). doi:10.4000/clio.518.
^Virgili, Fabrice (1995-04-01). "Les « tondues » à la Libération :le corps des femmes, enjeu d'une réaproppriation". Clio. Femmes, Genre, Histoire (in French) (1). doi:10.4000/clio.518. ISSN 1252-7017.
^Marc Bergère (September 2004). "Tous les milieux sociaux ont été visés". Historia (693). Paris: 56–60.
^Alison Moore, History, Memory and Trauma in Photography of the Tondues: visuality of the Vichy past through the silent image of women. Gender and History 17 (3), November 2005, 657-681.
^Shapin, Stephen (20 September 2013). "Book Review: 'Brave Genius' by Sean B. Carroll". Wall Street Journal.
^"Les "enfants de la guerre" reconnus par Berlin". Libération. 20 February 2009.
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