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Dharma (/ˈdɑːrmə/;[7] Sanskrit: धर्म, romanized: Dharma, pronounced [dʱɐrmɐ] ⓘ) is a key concept with multiple meanings in the Indian religions (Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism), among others.[8] Although no single-word translation exists for dharma in English (or other European languages),[9] the term is commonly understood as referring to behaviours that are in harmony with the "order and custom" that sustain life; "virtue", or "religious and moral duties".[10][11]
In Hinduism, dharma denotes behaviours that are considered to be in accord with Ṛta—the "order and custom" that makes life and universe possible.[note 1] This includes duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues and "right way of living".[13] The concept is believed to have a transtemporal validity,[14] and is one of the four Puruṣārthas. In Buddhism, dharma (Pali: Dhamma) refers to "cosmic law and order",[12][15] as expressed by the teachings of the Buddha.[12][15] In Buddhist philosophy, dhamma/dharma is also the term for "phenomena".[16][note 2] Dharma in Jainism refers to the teachings of Tirthankara (Jina)[12] and the body of doctrine pertaining to the purification and moral transformation of humans. In Sikhism, dharma indicates the path of righteousness, proper religious practices, and performing one's own moral duties.[17]
The concept of dharma was in use in the historical Vedic religion, and its meaning and conceptual scope has evolved over several millennia.[18] The ancient Tamil text Tirukkuṟaḷ, despite being a collection of aphoristic teachings on dharma (aram), artha (porul), and kama (inpam),[19]: 453 [20]: 82 is completely and exclusively based on aṟam, the Tamil term for dharma.[21]: 55 As with the other components of the Puruṣārtha, the concept of dharma is pan-Indian. The antonym of dharma is adharma.
- ^ see below:
- J. A. B. van Buitenen (1957), "Dharma and Moksa", Philosophy East and West, 7(1/2), pp. 33–40;
- James Fitzgerald (2004), "Dharma and its Translation in the Mahābhārata", Journal of Indian philosophy, 32(5), pp. 671–685; Quote – "virtues enter the general topic of dharma as 'common, or general, dharma', ..."
- ^ see:
- David Frawley (2009), Yoga and Ayurveda: Self-Healing and Self-Realization, ISBN 978-0-9149-5581-8; Quote – "Yoga is a dharmic approach to the spiritual life...";
- Mark Harvey (1986), The Secular as Sacred?, Modern Asian Studies, 20(2), pp. 321–331.
- ^ Bernard S. Jackson (1975), "From dharma to law", The American Journal of Comparative Law, Vol. 23, No. 3 (Summer, 1975), pp. 490–512.
- ^ Gavin Flood (1994), Hinduism, in Jean Holm, John Bowker (Editors) – Rites of Passages, ISBN 1-85567-102-6, Chapter 3; Quote – "Rites of passage are dharma in action."; "Rites of passage, a category of rituals,..."
- ^ Harold Coward (2004), "Hindu bioethics for the twenty-first century", JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association, 291(22), pp. 2759–2760; Quote – "Hindu stages of life approach (ashrama dharma)..."
- ^ see:
- Austin Creel (1975), "The Reexamination of Dharma in Hindu Ethics", Philosophy East and West, 25(2), pp. 161–173; Quote – "Dharma pointed to duty, and specified duties..";
- Gisela Trommsdorff (2012), Development of "agentic" regulation in cultural context: the role of self and world views, Child Development Perspectives, 6(1), pp. 19–26.; Quote – "Neglect of one's duties (dharma – sacred duties toward oneself, the family, the community, and humanity) is seen as an indicator of immaturity."
- ^ Wells, John C. (2008), Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (3rd ed.), Longman, ISBN 978-1-4058-8118-0
- ^ "Dharma". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2016-08-18.
- ^ Cite error: The named reference
lrawwas invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ Grimes 1996, p. 112.
- ^ Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. (9 April 2019) "Dharma". Encyclopædia Britannica. Accessed 14 September 2021.
- ^ a b c d "Dharma", The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions.
- ^ see: *"Dharma", The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th Ed. (2013), Columbia University Press, Gale, ISBN 978-0-7876-5015-5; *Steven Rosen (2006), Essential Hinduism, Praeger, ISBN 0-275-99006-0, Chapter 3.
- ^ Kumar, Shailendra; Choudhury, Sanghamitra (2021-01-01). Meissner, Richard (ed.). "Ancient Vedic Literature and Human Rights: Resonances and Dissonances". Cogent Social Sciences. 7 (1): 1858562. doi:10.1080/23311886.2020.1858562. ISSN 2331-1886.
- ^ a b "dhamma", The New Concise Pali English Dictionary.
- ^ a b David Kalupahana. The Philosophy of the Middle Way. SUNY Press, 1986, pp. 15–16.
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