Global InformationBlack Seminoles information
 An Afro-Seminole elder smoking from a pipe (1952) | |
| Total population | |
|---|---|
| ~2,000 | |
| Regions with significant populations | |
| United States: Oklahoma, Florida, Texas The Bahamas: Andros Island Mexico: Coahuila | |
| Languages | |
| English, Afro-Seminole Creole, Spanish | |
| Religion | |
| Protestantism, Roman Catholicism and syncretic Islam | |
| Related ethnic groups | |
| Gullah, Mascogos, Seminoles |
The Black Seminoles, or Afro-Seminoles, are an ethnic group of mixed Native American and African origin[1] associated with the Seminole people in Florida and Oklahoma. They are mostly blood descendants of the Seminole people, free Africans, and escaped former slaves, who allied with Seminole groups in Spanish Florida. Many have Seminole lineage, but due to the stigma of having mixed origin,[2] they have all been categorized as slaves or freedmen in the past.[3]
Historically, the Black Seminoles lived mostly in distinct bands near the Native American Seminoles. Some were held as slaves, particularly of Seminole leaders, but the Black Seminole had more freedom than did slaves held by whites in the South and by other Native American tribes, including the right to bear arms.[4][5]
Today, Black Seminole descendants live primarily in rural communities around the Seminole Nation of Oklahoma. Its two Freedmen's bands, the Caesar Bruner Band and the Dosar Barkus Band,[6] are represented on the General Council of the Nation. Other centers are in Florida, Texas, the Bahamas, and northern Mexico.[7][8]
Since the 1930s, the Seminole Freedmen have struggled with cycles of exclusion from the Seminole Tribe of Oklahoma.[9] In 1990, the tribe received the majority of a $56 million judgment trust by the United States, for seizure of lands in Florida in 1823, and the Freedmen have worked to gain a share of it. In 1999, the Seminole Freedmen's suit against the government was dismissed in the United States Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit; the court ruled the Freedmen could not bring suit independently of the Seminole Nation of Oklahoma, which refused to join on the claim issue.[10] In 2000 the Seminole Nation voted to restrict membership to those who could prove descent from a Seminole on the Dawes Rolls of the early 20th century, which excluded about 1,200 Freedmen who were previously included as members. Excluded Freedmen argue that the Dawes Rolls were inaccurate and often classified persons with both Seminole and African ancestry as only Freedmen. The District Court for the District of Columbia however ruled in Seminole Nation of Oklahoma v. Norton that Freedmen retained membership and voting rights.[11]
- ^ Mahon p. 21, 60, and continuous
- ^ Mills p. 331-332
- ^ Robertson, Ray Van (2008). "Prejudice and the Estelusti: A Qualitative Examination of Contemporary Status". Journal of African American Studies. 12 (3): 266–282. Retrieved 27 February 2024.
- ^ Gershon, Livia. "The History of the Black Seminoles The community's resilient history speaks of repeated invasions and resistance to enslavement". JSTOR Daily. JSTOR. Retrieved 27 February 2024.
- ^ Alexander, Otis. "The Black Maroons of Florida (1693-1850)". Blackpast.org. Retrieved 27 February 2024.
- ^ Kevin Mulroy (2007). The Seminole Freedmen: A History. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 269. ISBN 978-0-8061-3865-7.
- ^ Opala, Joseph. "Black Seminoles—Gullahs Who Escaped From Slavery" (PDF). The Gullah: Rice, Slavery, and the Sierre Leone Connection. Yale University. Retrieved 26 August 2022.
- ^ Howard, Rosalyn; Hahn, Steven (2005). "Black Seminoles in the Bahamas". African Diaspora Archeology Newsletter. 8 (4): 1–6. Retrieved 27 February 2024.
- ^ Mulroy (2004), pp. 474-475.
- ^ Cite error: The named reference
daviswas invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ "The long fight for Freedmen citizenship continues in Oklahoma tribal nations", NonDoc, 4 March, 2022