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The 1160s was a decade of the Julian Calendar which began on January 1, 1160, and ended on December 31, 1169.
Events
1160
By place[edit]
Byzantine Empire[edit]
- Spring – Emperor Manuel I (Komnenos) sends an embassy led by John Kontostephanos to Jerusalem, to ask King Baldwin III to nominate one of the princesses of the Crusader States, as a bride for the widowed emperor. Their two candidates are 15-year-old Maria of Antioch, and Melisende of Tripoli. Baldwin suggests Melisende, and her brother Count Raymond III sets about gathering an enormous dowry. The ambassadors are not satisfied, and delay the marriage for over a year. They hear rumours about Melisende's birth, based on her mother's (Countess Hodierna of Jerusalem) infidelity, and therefore Melisende's possible illegitimacy.[1]
Europe[edit]
- January 25 – King Frederick I (Barbarossa) captures Crema after a 6-month siege, as part of his campaign against the independent Italian city-states. Some 20,000 survivors are allowed to leave the city with whatever they could carry before Crema is looted and burnt to the ground.[2] The expense of the siege (over 2,000 silver marks) and Frederick's determination to enforce it over the winter, demonstrates his ability to hold troops in the field and to keep his allies on side.[3]
- May 18 – Erik Jedvardsson (Eric IX) is murdered, after which his murderer Magnus Henriksen proclaims himself king of Sweden as Magnus II. He is murdered in turn the following year, however. Erik is soon worshipped as a saint. Though never formally canonized by Pope Alexander III, he eventually becomes the patron saint of Sweden.
- A plot of land at Miholjanec is donated to the Knights Templar, who build a monastery in nearby Zdelia. This is the earliest historical mention of the Templars in Croatia and Hungary.[4]
- Spital am Semmering (modern Austria) is founded by Margrave Ottokar III. He erects a hospital and completes the colonization of the area around the Traisen and Gölsen rivers.
- Autumn – Within weeks of the death of his second wife, Queen Constance of Castile, King Louis VII marries Adela of Champagne, daughter of Count Theobald II (the Great).
- A large Portuguese offensive begins in the Alentejo region, against the Almoravids.[5] The city of Tomar is founded by Gualdim Pais, Grand Master of the Knights Templar.
Levant[edit]
- Autumn – Raynald of Châtillon, prince of Antioch, makes a plundering raid in the valley of the Euphrates at Marash to seize cattle, horses and camels from the local peasants. On his way back to Antioch, he and his retinue are attacked by Zangid warriors. Raynald is unhorsed and captured, and sent to Aleppo where he is put in jail.[6]
Africa[edit]
- The Almohads conquer Mahdia (modern Tunisia) from the Normans after an important naval success near the city, against Christian reinforcements coming from Sicily.[7]
- A commercial treaty, between the Almohad Caliphate and the Republic of Pisa, opens the North African ports to Tuscan merchants (approximate date).
Asia[edit]
- Siege of Sanjō Palace: A rebel force (some 500 men) under Minamoto no Yoshitomo launches a night attack against Emperor Nijō. They kidnap the retired-Emperor Go-Shirakawa and set fire to the palace in Kyoto.[8]
- Emperor Dharanindravarman II dies and is succeeded by his cousin Yasovarman II as ruler of the Khmer Empire (modern Cambodia). Dharanindravarman's son Jayavarman VII goes into exile in neighboring Champa.
By topic[edit]
Education[edit]
- The Derby School is founded at Derby, England.
1161
By place[edit]
Europe[edit]
- February 3 – Battle of Oslo: King Inge I (the Hunchback) is defeated and killed, while fighting the forces of Haakon II (the Broadshouldered). He is succeeded by Haakon with the 5-year-old Magnus V as co-ruler, but not without challenges to his sovereignty.
- Magnus II (Henriksson), pretender to the Swedish throne, is murdered by Charles VII (or Karl), who becomes king of Sweden (until 1167).
- An Almoravid offensive against the Kingdom of Portugal reaches the city of Almada (located on the Tagus River).[9]
- Géza II of Hungary and the envoys of Pope Alexander III conclude the Concordat of 1161.[10]
Asia[edit]
- Jin–Song Wars: The Battle of Tangdao (November 16) and Battle of Caishi (November 26–27) on the Yangtze River, between the Jin Dynasty and the Song Dynasty in China, result in two pivotal Song naval victories.
- December 15 – Wanyan Liang, Chinese prince of Hailing, is assassinated while on campaign. He is succeeded by Emperor Shi Zong of the Jin Dynasty (until 1189).
England[edit]
- Spring – Theobald of Bec, archbishop of Canterbury dies after an illness. King Henry II is informed and he expresses the wish to have his friend Thomas Becket elected as his successor.
- Bartholomew Iscanus is elected and consecrated as bishop of Exeter (until 1184).
By topic[edit]
Religion[edit]
- The Cross of Euphrosyne, commissioned by Euphrosyne of Polotsk, is created by craftsman Lazar Bohsa. (The cross later went missing during World War II, and has not been recovered).
1162
By place[edit]
Europe[edit]
- March 6 – German forces, led by Emperor Frederick I (Barbarossa), capture Milan; much of the city is destroyed three weeks later, on the emperor's orders. The fortifications are demolished, and the churches are destroyed. The population is dispersed, and the commune abolished.[11] The fate of Milan leads to the submission of Brescia, Piacenza, and many other northern Italian cities.[12]
- July 7 – Norwegian forces under the pretender Magnus V (Erlingsson) defeat the 15-year-old King Haakon II (Sigurdsson), who is killed in battle in Romsdal after a 5-year reign.
- July 15 – Ladislaus II, duke of Bosnia, is declared king of Hungary and Croatia. He is crowned by Archbishop Mikó and grants one-third of the kingdom to his brother, Stephen IV.
England[edit]
- June 3 – King Henry II has his chancellor Thomas Becket elected to succeed the late Theobald of Bec as archbishop of Canterbury. He accepts the pallium send by Pope Alexander III.
Africa[edit]
- The Almohad emir, Abd al-Mu'min, prepares a gigantic fleet of some four hundred ships to invade Al-Andalus (modern Spain). He dies the following year, before the fleet is completed.[13]
China[edit]
- July 24 – Emperor Gao Zong becomes embroiled in war again as hostilities resume with the Jurchen-led Jin Dynasty (or Great Jin) after 21 years of peace. Another peace treaty is signed, Gao abdicates the throne in favor of his adopted son Xiao Zong. The smaller Southern Song empire becomes richer than the Song Dynasty.
By topic[edit]
Religion[edit]
- The Beisi Pagoda (or North Temple Pagoda) is completed during the Song Dynasty.
1163
- Owain Gwynedd is recognized as ruler of Wales.[14][15]
- Silesian duchies accept the suzerainty of the Holy Roman Empire.[16][17][18]
- The Law of Succession is introduced in Norway.[19][20][21]
- Council of Tours: Albigensians are named and condemned as heretics.[22][23]
- Loccum Abbey in Hanover is founded as a Cistercian house, by abbot Ekkehard.[24][25]
- The Guanfuchang salt-fields (官富場) in Hong Kong (nowadays To Kwa Wan, Kowloon Bay, Kwun Tong and Lam Tin districts) are first officially operated by the Song dynasty.[26][better source needed]
- The first stone of Paris's Notre Dame Cathedral is set by Pope Alexander III.[27][28][29]
1164
By place[edit]
Scotland[edit]
- Battle of Renfrew: A Norse-Gaelic army led by Lord Somerled, ruler of the Isles, invades Scotland and is routed by the Scottish forces under the command of Walter fitz Alan and Herbert of Selkirk, bishop of Glasgow.
England[edit]
- January 30 – King Henry II tries to delimit spiritual and royal jurisdictions in the Constitutions of Clarendon, written in large part by his councilor Richard de Luci. [30]
- November 2 – Thomas Becket, having contended with Henry II over the power of secular courts, is found guilty of contempt of court, and exiled to France.[30]
Levant[edit]
- Spring – Saladin accompanies his uncle, General Shirkuh, with an army sent to the Fatimid Caliphate (modern Egypt) by Nur al-Din, ruler (atabeg) of Syria.[31]
- August 12 – Battle of Harim: Zangid forces under Nur al-Din defeat and capture Bohemond III of Antioch, Raymond of Tripoli, and Hugh of Lusignan.
Africa[edit]
- A commercial treaty grants access to Almohad-dominated ports to merchants from several European powers, including Marseille and Savona.[32]
Asia[edit]
- September 14 – Emperor Sutoku dies in Sanuki Province (on the island of Shikoku), having lived in exile from the capital at Kyoto (since 1156).
By topic[edit]
Markets[edit]
- Venice secures its loans against fiscal revenues, to obtain lower interest rates. In the first operation of this kind, the Republic obtains 1150 silver marci, for 12 years of the taxes levied on the Rialto market.[33]
Religion[edit]
- April 20 – Antipope Victor IV dies at Rome and is succeeded by Paschal III , who has gained election through the influence of Archchancellor Rainald of Dassel.
- August 5 – Uppsala is recognized as the seat of the Swedish metropolitan, with the coronation of its first archbishop Stefan, by Pope Alexander III.
- King Olaf II of Norway is canonized as Saint Olaf by Alexander III, making him a universally recognised saint of the Catholic Church.
- Rainald of Dassel brings relics of the Three Magi, from Milan to Cologne as a gift for Emperor Frederick I (Barbarossa).
1165
By place[edit]
Byzantine Empire[edit]
- Spring – Emperor Manuel I (Komnenos) makes an alliance with Venice against Emperor Frederick I (Barbarossa), who takes an oath at the Diet of Würzburg to support Antipope Paschal III against Pope Alexander III.
- Andronikos Komnenos, a cousin of Manuel I, escapes from prison at Constantinople. After passing through many dangers, he reaches Kiev and seeks refuge at the court of Prince Yaroslav Osmomysl.
Europe[edit]
- Gerald the Fearless, Portuguese warrior and adventurer, seizes the city Évora by surprise. The same year (or soon after), he takes Cáceres, Trujillo, Montánchez, Moura, Monsaraz and Alconchel from the Almohads.
- October 15 – Battle of Fahs al-Jullab: Almohads forces defeat Ibn Mardanish, ruler of the Taifa of Murcia. His army is routed at a place called the "merchant field" near Alhama, in the valley of the Guadalentín.[34]
- Benjamin of Tudela, Spanish Jewish traveler, sets out on his journey from the northeast Iberian Peninsula (modern Spain), in what begins as a pilgrimage to the Holy Land.[35]
- Otto II (the Rich), margrave of Meissen, grants Leipzig city and market privileges. The city is located at the crossways of the Via Regia and Via Imperii trade routes.
Britain[edit]
- King Owain ap Gruffydd (the Great) of Gwynedd forms an alliance with his nephew Rhys ap Gruffydd, prince of Deheubarth, to challenge English rule. They drive the English forces out of Wales.
- Battle of Crogen: King Henry II invades Wales, but is defeated and forced to retreat. After Welsh forces under Owain ap Gruffydd inflict an unknown number of casualties on the English army.
- Henry II's marriage with Queen Eleanor of Aquitaine is effectively ended when she moves back to Aquitaine. Henry begins an affair with Rosamund Clifford.
- December 9 – King Malcolm IV dies at Jedburgh after a 12-year reign and is succeeded by his brother William I (the Lion) as ruler of Scotland (until 1214).
Asia[edit]
- January 30 – Emperor Go-Shirakawa holds an opening ceremony for the Sanjūsangen-dō, a temple built by Taira no Kiyomori.
- September 5 – Emperor Nijō abdicates the throne and dies after a 7-year reign. He is succeeded by his 1-year-old son Rokujō as the 79th emperor of Japan.
- In China the Jin Dynasty (Great Jin) and the Song Dynasty make a lasting peace (until 1205).
By topic[edit]
Religion[edit]
- Eskil, Danish archbishop of Lund, appoints Fulco as the first Bishop of Estonia, marking the early beginning of the introduction of Christianity to the country. He will visit Estonia for the first time in 1169 or 1170.
- Hildegard of Bingen, German Benedictine abbess, founds Eibingen Abbey on the opposite bank of the Rhine near Rüdesheim (approximate date).
- The construction of Liuhe Pagoda (Six Harmonies Pagoda) in Hangzhou, China, is completed during the Song Dynasty.
1166
By place[edit]
Byzantine Empire[edit]
- Emperor Manuel I (Komnenos) asks Venice to help pay the costs of defending Sicily, whose Norman rulers have had good relations with Venice. Doge Vitale II Michiel refuses to pay the requested subsidy. Manuel begins to cultivate relationships with the main commercial rivals of Venice: Genoa and Pisa. He grants them their own trade quarters in Constantinople, very near the Venetian settlements.
Europe[edit]
- May 7 – King William I (the Wicked) of Sicily dies at Palermo after a 12-year reign. He is succeeded by his 12-year-old son William II (the Good), whose mother, Margaret of Navarre, will be regent until he comes of age.
- Battle of Pantina: The Byzantines intervene on behalf of Grand Prince Tihomir of Serbia against his rebellious brother, Prince Stefan Nemanja, who defeats the Byzantine forces and becomes Grand Župan of Serbia.
- Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony, has the Brunswick Lion created at Dankwarderode Castle in Braunschweig (modern Germany). Mentioned by Albert of Stade, a German abbot and chronicler, as the year of origin.
- July 5 – The town of Bad Kleinkirchheim (modern Austria) is first mentioned, in an ecclesiastical document, in which Archbishop Conrad II of Salzburg confirms the donation of a chapel, nearby Millstatt Abbey.
- Autumn – Emperor Frederick I (Barbarossa) begins his fourth Italian campaign, hoping to secure the claim of Antipope Paschal III in Rome and the coronation of his wife Beatrice I as Holy Roman Empress.
- Mieszko III (the Old) proclaims a Prussian crusade against the pagans and pressures the collaboration of Frederick I. He leaves Greater Poland in the hands of his younger brother Casimir II (the Just).
Britain[edit]
- Diarmaid mac Murchadha is exiled and goes to Normandy, and the court of King Henry II to ask for assistance in retaking his kingdom. Henry gives him permission to find a willing army from either England or Wales.
- Richard de Clare (Strongbow), 2nd Earl of Pembroke, and his half-brothers Robert FitzStephen and Maurice FitzGerald, agree to help Diarmaid mac Murchadha in return for Diarmaid's daughter's hand in marriage.
- Cartae Baronum ("Charters of the Barons"), a survey commissioned by the Treasury requiring each baron to declare how many knights he had enfeoffed.
- Summer – Henry II invades and conquers Brittany to punish the local Breton barons. He grants the territory to his 7-year-old son Geoffrey.[36]
- Henry II enacts the Assize of Clarendon, reforming English law, with the aim of improving the justice process, including the jury system.[30]
- William Marshal, a Norman statesman, described as "the greatest knight that ever lived", is knighted while on campaign in Normandy.
Ireland[edit]
- Muirchertach mac Lochlainn, High King of Ireland, is killed. He is succeeded by Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair, king of Connacht, who defeats Diarmaid mac Murchadha (or Dermot) in battle, another ruler in eastern Ireland.
1167
By place[edit]
Europe[edit]
- April 7 – Oath of Pontida: Supported by Pope Alexander III, the Lombard League is founded, a military alliance between the municipalities of Milan, Lodi, Ferrara, Piacenza and Parma, against the German invading forces of Emperor Frederick I (Barbarossa) in Northern Italy. The League (with other Italian cities) openly challenges Frederick's claim to power (Honor Imperii).
- April 12 – King Charles VII (Sverkersson) is murdered at Visingsö by supporters of Canute I (son of Eric IX), who proclaims himself king of Sweden. However, Charles's half-brothers Boleslaw and Kol Sverkerson proclaim themselves rulers of Östergötland, in opposition to Canute, which leads to fights for the power in Sweden (until 1173).
- May 29 – Battle of Monte Porzio: The army of the Commune of Rome is defeated by German forces under Frederick I and the local princes; Alexander III leaves Rome.[37] Frederick proceeds to Rome, where he is crowned by Antipope Paschal III for the second time. A sudden outbreak of pestilence kills many of his advisors and knights.[38]
- July 8 – Battle of Sirmium: Byzantine forces (15,000 men) under General Andronikos Kontostephanos defeat the Hungarians at Sirmium. Emperor Manuel I (Komnenos) consolidates his control over the western Balkans.
- August – Frederick I claims imperial authority over Bohemia, Greater Poland and Hungary. He installs his 3-year-old son Frederick V as duke of Swabia, after Frederick's cousin, Frederick IV, dies of disease at Rome.
Egypt[edit]
- March 18 – Battle of Al-Babein: A second Zangid army (some 12,000 men) under General Shirkuh and his nephew Saladin marches towards Egypt, but is met by the combined Crusader-Fatimid forces led by King Amalric of Jerusalem. After skirmishing down the Nile, the Crusaders are defeated near Giza and forced to retreat to Cairo.[39]
- May–June – Saladin leads the defence of Alexandria against the Crusader-Fatimid forces. He takes command over the garrison (plus some 1,000 cavalry), and the army's sick and wounded.[40]
- August 4 – Amalric I accepts a peace treaty and enters Alexandria at the head of the Crusader army. Saladin and his troops are escorted out with full military honours, and retreats to Syria.[41]
Ireland[edit]
- Diarmaid mac Murchadha (or Dermot), former king of Leinster, returns to Ireland with an advance party of Flemings under Richard fitz Godbert de Roche.
England[edit]
- King Henry II prohibits English students from attending the University of Paris; many settle at the University of Oxford.[42]
Asia[edit]
- Taira no Kiyomori becomes the first samurai to be appointed Daijo Daijin, chief minister of the government of Japan.
By topic[edit]
Religion[edit]
- Absalon, Danish archbishop and statesman, leads the first synod at Lund. He is granted land around the city of "Havn" (modern-day Copenhagen) and fortifies the coastal defence against the Wends.
1168
By place[edit]
Levant[edit]
- Summer – King Amalric I of Jerusalem, and Byzantine emperor Manuel I (Komnenos), negotiate an alliance against Fatimid-Egypt. Archbishop William of Tyre is among the ambassadors sent to Constantinople, to finalize the treaty.
- Autumn – William IV, count of Nevers, arrives in Palestine with a contingent of elite knights. In Jerusalem he is present during a council with Amalric and other nobles to decide on an expedition to Egypt.
- October 20 – Amalric I invades Egypt again from Ascalon, sacking Bilbeis and threatening Cairo. In November, a Crusader fleet sails up the Nile and arrives in Lake Manzala, sacking the town of Tanis.[43]
- Nur al-Din, Zangid ruler (atabeg) of Aleppo, sends an expedition under General Shirkuh to Egypt on request of the Fatimid caliph Al-Adid. He offers him a third of the land, and fiefs for his generals.[44]
Egypt[edit]
- December 22 – Afraid that the Egyptian capital Fustat (modern-day Old Cairo) will be captured by Crusader forces, its Fatimid vizier, Shawar, orders the city set afire. The capital burns for 54 days.
Europe[edit]
- March 27 – Patrick of Salisbury, Angevin governor of Poitou, is killed in an ambush at Poitiers by French forces under Guy of Lusignan. He is escorting Queen Eleanor of Aquitaine on a journey near the border of Aquitaine. Patrick's nephew, William Marshal, is part of the royal escort and is taken prisoner. Later he is ransomed and becomes a member of Eleanor's household.[45]
- King Valdemar I (the Great) of Denmark conquers the Wendish capital at Arkona on the island of Rügen (modern Germany). The Wends become Christians and subject to Danish suzerainty.
- Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony, marries the 12-year-old Matilda (or Maud), daughter of King Henry II of England.[46]
- The newly born Commune of Rome conquers and destroys the rival neighboring city of Albano (modern Italy).[47]
- Stephen du Perche, Sicilian chancellor, is accused of plotting to claim the throne and is forced to flee.
Asia[edit]
- April 9 – Emperor Rokujō is deposed by his grandfather, retired-Emperor Go-Shirakawa, after an 8-month reign. He is succeeded by his 6-year-old uncle, Takakura, as the 80th emperor of Japan.
- Yuanqu County (known as Wanting County) in China is destroyed by a flood of the Yellow River.
By topic[edit]
Religion[edit]
- September 20 – Antipope Paschal III dies at Rome after a 4-year reign. Giovanni di Struma is elected as his successor and will reign as Antipope Callixtus III with support from Emperor Frederick I.
1169
By place[edit]
Byzantine Empire[edit]
- Late Summer – Emperor Manuel I (Komnenos) sends an embassy to Egypt to demand tribute, and threatens the country with war when they refuse to pay it. The Byzantine fleet under Admiral Andronikos Kontostephanos sets out from the Hellespont; 60 war galleys are sent to Palestine with money for "the knights of Jerusalem". Andronikos with the rest of the fleet sails to Cyprus, at which he defeats a patrolling squadron of 6 Fatimid ships.[48]
Europe[edit]
- Spring – Gerald the Fearless, Portuguese warrior and knight, receives the support of King Afonso I (the Great). The Almohad caliph, Abu Yaqub Yusuf, manages to broker an alliance with King Ferdinand II against Afonso. The allies manage to besiege Badajoz, and finally take both Afonso and Gerald prisoner.[49]
- King Henry II of England and Louis VII sign a peace treaty which includes the betrothal of their respective heirs, the 11-year-old Richard I and the 8-year-old Alys of France (or Alice).[50]
- Andrey Bogolyubsky, Grand Prince of Vladimir-Suzdal, sacks Kiev (with help from allies) and makes Vladimir the capital of Kievan Rus'. He installs relatives on the throne at Kiev.
- During the Swedish power struggle, Boleslaw is killed, but his brother Kol continues as ruler of Östergötland (until 1173), in opposition to King Knut I (Eriksson) of Sweden.
- February 4 – 1169 Sicily earthquake: An earthquake with an estimated magnitude of around 7 strikes the eastern coast of Sicily, causing an estimated 15,000 deaths.
- Stephen III of Hungary concludes a concordat with Pope Alexander III, renouncing his right of investiture.[51]
England[edit]
- Henry II makes an effort to end the strife between him and his wife, Queen Eleanor of Aquitaine, in order that he may dally in western Herefordshire with his mistress, Rosamund Clifford, the daughter of Walter de Clifford. He divides the succession to his kingdom among his four sons, Henry the Young King, Richard I, Geoffrey II and John.
Ireland[edit]
- May – Norman invasion of Ireland: Anglo-Norman mercenaries land at the request of King Diarmaid mac Murchadha (Dermot).[52] Among those arriving is Richard de Clare (a vassal of Henry II), who has made an alliance with exiled Diarmaid mac Murchadha to help him regain the throne of Leinster. This begins the period of Anglo-Norman dominance of Ireland.
Egypt[edit]
- Spring – A Zangid expedition under General Shirkuh accompanied by his nephew Saladin invades Egypt. King Amalric I of Jerusalem orders his fleet to return to Acre and retreats with the Crusaders back to Palestine.
- January 8 – Shirkuh enters Cairo, leaving the Zangid army encamped outside the city. He goes to the palace, where the 18-year-old Fatimid caliph Al-Adid welcomes him with ceremonial gifts and promised money.[53]
- January 18 – Shawar, Fatimid vizier and de facto ruler, is invited to join Shirkuh on a pilgrimage to the tomb of Al-Shafi'i. Underway he and his escort are taken prisoner; on orders from Al-Adid, Shawar is decapitated.[54]
- March 23 – Shirkuh dies from over-eating after a 2-month reign.[55] He is succeeded by Saladin, who is appointed chief vizier of the Fatimid Caliphate. He takes over as commander of Nur al-Din's forces in Egypt.[56]
- Summer – Saladin invites his brother Turan-Shah to join him in Cairo. He brings his family and retinue with him but also a substantial army provided by Nur al-Din. Turan-Shah is welcomed by Al-Adid as a friend.[57]
- August 21–23 – At the Battle of the Blacks, Saladin crushes a rebellion by Sudanese forces (50,000 men) of the Fatimid army, along with a number of Egyptian emirs and commoners. He never again has to face a military uprising from Cairo.[58]
- Winter – Saladin supported by reinforcements from Nur al-din, defeats a Crusader-Byzantine force under Amalric I near Damietta. During the 3-month siege, the Crusaders are forced to retreat to Palestine.[59]
By topic[edit]
Art and Science[edit]
- Eleanor of Aquitaine leaves the English court of Henry II, to establish her own court in Poitiers. It will become known as a center of courtly love. Richard I accompanies his mother and is made heir to Aquitaine.
- ^ Steven Runciman (1952). A History of The Crusades. Vol II: The Kingdom of Jerusalem, pp. 292–293. ISBN 978-0-241-29876-3.
- ^ Bradbury, Jim (1992). The Medieval Siege, p. 92. Woodbridge, Suffolk: Boydell Press. ISBN 978-0-851-15357-5.
- ^ Andrew Roberts (2008). Great Commanders of the Medieval World (454–1582), p. 134. ISBN 978-0-85738-589-5.
- ^ Hunyadi, Zsolt; Laszlovszky, József. The Crusades and the Military Orders. Central European University. Dept. of Medieval Studies. p. 246. ISBN 978-963-9241-42-8.
- ^ Picard, Christophe (2000). Le Portugal musulman, VIIIe-XIIIe siècle: L'Occident dál-Andalus sous domination islamique. Paris: Maisonneuve & Larose. p. 110. ISBN 2-7068-1398-9.
- ^ Steven Runciman (1952). A History of The Crusades. Vol II: The Kingdom of Jerusalem, p. 291. ISBN 978-0-241-29876-3.
- ^ Picard, Christophe (1997). La mer et les musulmans d'Occident VIIIe-XIIIe siècle. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
- ^ Samson, George (1958). A History of Japan to 1334, pp. 256–258. Standford University Press. ISBN 08-0470-523-2.
- ^ Picard, Christophe (2000). Le Portugal musulman, VIIIe-XIIIe Siècle: L'Occident d'al-Andalus sous domination islamique. Paris: maisonneuve & Larose. p. 110. ISBN 2-7068-1398-9.
- ^ Makk, Ferenc (1989). The Árpáds and the Comneni: Political Relations between Hungary and Byzantium in the 12th century (Translated by György Novák). Akadémiai Kiadó. p. 75. ISBN 963-05-5268-X.
- ^ Andrew Roberts (2011). Great Commanders of the Medieval World (454–1582), p. 135. ISBN 978-0-85738-589-5.
- ^ Comyn, Robert (1851). History of the Western Empire, from its Restoration by Charlemagne to the Accession of Charles V, p. 246.
- ^ Picard C. (1997). La mer et les musulmans d'Occident au Moyen Age. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, p. 77.
- ^ Duffy, Séan (2007). "Henry II and England's Insular Neighbours". In Harper-Bill, Christopher; Vincent, Nicholas (eds.). Henry II: New Interpretations. Woodbridge, UK and Rochester, NY: Boydell Press. p. 134. ISBN 9781843833406.
- ^ Malone, Patricia (2008). ""Se Principem Nominat:" Rhetorical Self-Fashioning and Epistolary Style in the Letters of Owain Gwynedd". Proceedings of the Harvard Celtic Colloquium. 28: 169–184. ISSN 1545-0155. JSTOR 41219622.
We know from Thomas Becket's letter to Pope Alexander that Owain had begun to refer to himself as princeps by at least 1163
- ^ Scholz, Albert August (2013) [1964]. Silesia: Yesterday and Today. The Hague, Netherlands: Springer. pp. 3–4. ISBN 9789401760027.
- ^ Hartshorne, Richard (1933-12-01). "Geographic and Political Boundaries in Upper Silesia". Annals of the Association of American Geographers. 23 (4): 195–228. doi:10.1080/00045603309357073. ISSN 0004-5608.
The separation of Silesia from Poland dates, for practical purposes perhaps from 1163
- ^ HARRINGTON, JOSEPH F. (1974). "Upper Silesia and the Paris Peace Conference". The Polish Review. 19 (2): 25–45. ISSN 0032-2970. JSTOR 25777197.
Upper Silesia had not been Polish since 1163
- ^ Brégaint, David (2015). Vox regis: Royal Communication in High Medieval Norway. Leiden, Boston: BRILL. p. 91. ISBN 9789004306431.
- ^ Emmerson, Richard K. (2016) [2006]. Routledge Revivals: Key Figures in Medieval Europe (2006): An Encyclopedia. London and New York: Taylor & Francis. p. 295. ISBN 9781351681681.
- ^ Vandvik, Eirik (2010-06-29). "Donatio Constantini and early Norwegian church policy". Symbolae Osloenses: Norwegian Journal of Greek and Latin Studies. 31 (1): 131–137. doi:10.1080/00397675508590469.
- ^ Robinson, I. S. (1996) [1990]. The Papacy, 1073-1198: Continuity and Innovation. Cambridge Medieval Textbooks. Cambridge, New York and Melbourne: Cambridge University Press. p. 140. ISBN 9780521319225.
- ^ Warner, Rev H. J. (2007) [1922]. The Albigensian Heresy. San Diego, CA: Book Tree. p. 41. ISBN 9781585092932.
- ^ Ozola, Silvjia (2018). "Impact of Catholic Monastery Church Building on Cistercian Monastery Formation in Livonia and the State of the Teutonic Order during 13th and 14th Century" (PDF). Scientific Journal of the Latvia University of Life Sciences and Technologies "Landscape Architecture and Art". 12 (12): 71. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09.
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