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The 1070s was a decade of the Julian Calendar which began on January 1, 1070, and ended on December 31, 1079.
Events
1070
- Spring – King Sweyn II joins the English rebels, led by Hereward (the Wake), and captures the Isle of Ely (located in The Fens) in East Anglia. Hereward sacks Peterborough Abbey in support with Sweyn's Danes.[1]
- Harrying of the North: King William I (the Conqueror) quells rebellions in the north of England, following an invasion by Sweyn II. Widespread famine follows the devastation wrought.[2]
- April 11 – Archbishop of Canterbury Stigand is deposed.
- May 1 – After 353 years of being exiled to Lugo due to the muslim ocupation of the city of Braga, the Archdiocese of Braga is restored by order of Ferdinand I of León under Archbishop D. Pedro of Braga thanks to the advancing christian forces during the Reconquista.
- June – Denmark signs a treaty with England; Sweyn II and his forces leave the country.[1]
- August 15 – The Pavian-born Benedictine Lanfranc is appointed as the new Archbishop of Canterbury in England.[3]
- An invasion of England by Malcolm III of Scotland is repelled.[1]
- Hugh d'Avranches, 1st Earl of Chester, the first Marcher Lord, invades Wales, capturing parts of Gwynedd.[1]
- A successful Byzantine counter-attack drives the Seljuq Turks across the Euphrates.
- Bergen is founded by King Olaf III of Norway; it will function as the main city and capital of Norway, until it is replaced by Oslo in 1314.
- Chinese Chancellor Wang Anshi starts the Xining Reforms (which last until 1085).
- Jews from Rouen in Normandy settle in England, at the invitation of King William I.[4]
- The Temple of Literature, Hanoi, is established in Hanoi, capital of Vietnam.
- Uyghur poet Yusuf Khass Hajib of Balasagun, in the Kara-Khanid Khanate, completes the Kutadgu Bilig ("The Wisdom Which Brings Good Fortune"), and presents it to the prince of Kashgar.
- Song dynasty Chinese astronomer, engineer, and statesman Su Song completes the compilation of the Ben Cao Tu Jing, a pharmaceutical treatise with related subjects of botany, zoology, mineralogy, and metallurgy.
- Canterbury Cathedral in England is rebuilt, following a fire.[5]
- The rebuilding of York Minster in England begins.[1]
- Construction of Richmond Castle in North Yorkshire, England, by Alan Rufus begins.
- Approximate date – Halsten Stenkilsson is deposed as king of Sweden, with Håkan the Red becoming king in Götaland, and Anund Gårdske being chosen as king of Svealand.[6]
1071
By place[edit]
Byzantine Empire[edit]
- August 26 – Battle of Manzikert: The Byzantine army (35,000 men) under Emperor Romanos IV meets the Seljuk Turk forces of Sultan Alp Arslan, near the town of Manzikert. Although the armies are initially evenly matched, as the Byzantines advance, the Seljuk Turks withdraw before them, launching hit-and-run attacks on the Byzantine flanks. While attempting to withdraw, the Byzantine army falls apart, either through treachery or confusion; the battle ends in a decisive defeat for the Byzantine Empire. Romanos is captured (later released by Alp Arslan within a week), and much of the elite Varangian Guard is destroyed (this will prove catastrophic for the Byzantine Empire).
- October 24 – Romanos IV is deposed by Caesar John Doukas and his political advisor Michael Psellos (after his return to Constantinople). Michael VII (Doukas) is crowned co-emperor – and his mother Eudokia is forced to retire to a monastery.
Europe[edit]
- February 22 – Battle of Cassel: Robert I (the Frisian) defeats his sister-in-law Richilde (widow of Baldwin VI) and her nephew Arnulf III, in a succession struggle for the County of Flanders. Robert is appointed count by King Philip I (the Amorous).
- April 15 – Siege of Bari: The capital of Bari, the last Byzantine-controlled city in the Catepanate of Italy, is captured by Italo-Norman forces under Duke Robert Guiscard after a 32-month siege.[7]
England[edit]
- The English rebels under Hereward (the Wake) and Morcar, Saxon former earl of Northumbria, are forced to retreat to their stronghold on the Isle of Ely. They make a desperate stand against the Norman forces led by King William I (the Conqueror), but are defeated.
- Edwin, earl of Mercia, rebels against William I, but is betrayed and killed. His castle and lands at Dudley (located in the West Midlands) are given to William's Norman subjects.
Africa[edit]
- May – Zaynab an-Nafzawiyyah marries Yusuf ibn Tashfin, leader of the Almoravids, and becomes his queen and co-regent.
1072
By place[edit]
Byzantine Empire[edit]
- June 29 – Romanos IV (Diogenes), deposed emperor of the Byzantine Empire, is blinded and sent into exile to the island of Proti (in the Sea of Marmara) at the Monastery of Transfiguration. A few days before his death, he receives a letter from Michael Psellos (his political advisor), congratulating him on the loss of his eyes.[8]
Europe[edit]
- January 10 – The Normans under Robert Guiscard and his brother Roger I (Boso) conquer Palermo (after a one year siege). Roger receives the keys of the city, and Robert invests him with the title of Count of Sicily. The Emirate of Sicily rules only the southern part of the island, with Syracuse as the capital (until 1091).
- January – Battle of Golpejera: King Sancho II (the Strong) defeats the Castilian forces of his brother Alfonso VI (the Brave) near Carrión de los Condes. Alfonso is captured, but released into exile, where he seeks refuge in the Taifa of Toledo (under the protection of his vassal, Emir Al-Mamun).
- October 7 – Alfonso VI becomes king of León and Castile, following the assassination of Sancho II. He is bestowed with the title of "Emperor of Spain", and is forced by Rodrigo Diaz de Vivar (El Cid), the standard-bearer of Sancho, to take an oath denying any involvement in his brother's death.
Britain[edit]
- May 27 – The Accord of Winchester establishes the primacy of the Archbishop of Canterbury over the Archbishop of York, in the Church of England.
- King William I (the Conqueror) invades Scotland and receives the submission of King Malcolm III. He agrees to sign the Treaty of Abernethy.
Seljuk Empire[edit]
- December 15 – Sultan Alp Arslan (Heroic Lion) dies after a 9-year reign (during his campaign in Transoxiana). He is succeeded by his 17-year-old son Malik-Shah I, who is declared new ruler of the Seljuk Empire. Qavurt, a brother of Alp Arslan, claims the Seljuk throne for himself and occupies the capital of Isfahan.
China[edit]
- Shen Kuo, Chinese polymathic scientist and statesman, is appointed as the head official for the Bureau of Astronomy – where he begins his work with the colleague Wei Pu on accurately plotting the orbital paths of the stars, planets, and moon three times a night, for a continuum of five years.
- Fall – Shen Kuo is sent to supervise Wang Anshi's program of surveying the building of silt deposits in the Bian Canal, outside the capital city of Kaifeng. Using an original technique, Shen successfully dredges the canal and demonstrates the formidable value of the silt gathered as a fertilizer.
By topic[edit]
Literature[edit]
- Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk, an informative book written by Mahmud al-Kashgari about the Turks, is presented to the ruler of the Kara-Khanid Khanate.
1073
By place[edit]
Byzantine Empire[edit]
- Spring – Emperor Michael VII (Doukas) sends a Byzantine army to deal with Seljuk raiding in Cappadocia, supported with a mixed force of Norman and French mercenary heavy cavalry under Roussel de Bailleul. Roussel re-conquers some territory in Galatia and declares it an independent Norman state. Michael, enraged, sends another army led by his uncle, Caesar John Doukas and the veteran General Nikephoros Botaneiates to deal with the rising of the Norman threat in Asia minor. But the Byzantines are defeated and John is captured. Roussel marches with a force (3,000 men) across Bithynia to the Bosporus and sacks Chrysopolis, near Constantinople.[9]
Europe[edit]
- May 25 – King Sancho IV of Navarre and Ahmad al-Muqtadir, Muslim ruler of the Taifa of Zaragoza, conclude an alliance by treaty.[10]
- Ebles II of Roucy leads a French army in Spain, to support King Sancho V of Aragon in his struggle against his Muslim neighbors.[11]
- Sviatoslav II and Vsevolod I unite the Kievan forces and expel their brother Iziaslav I. Sviatoslav II becomes Grand Prince of Kiev.
- October 14 – The Judicate of Arborea (one of the four independent kingdoms in Sardinia) is recognised by Pope Gregory VII.
Britain[edit]
- Edgar Ætheling, last male member of the House of Wessex, joins forces with King Malcolm III of Scotland and King Philip I (the Amorous) of France in an attempt to take the English throne.
Asia[edit]
- Wang Anshi, Chinese chief chancellor of the Song Dynasty, creates a new bureau of the central government (called the Directorate of Weapons), which supervises the manufacture of military armaments and ensures quality control.
- June 15 – Emperor Go-Sanjō dies after a 5-year reign and is succeeded by his 19-year-old son Shirakawa as the 72nd emperor of Japan.
By topic[edit]
Religion[edit]
- Pope Alexander II dies after a 11½-year pontificate at Rome. He is succeeded by Gregory VII as the 157th pope of the Catholic Church.[12]
- Rabbi Yitchaki Alfassi finishes writing the Rif, an important work of Jewish law.
- John IX bar Shushan ends his term as Syriac Orthodox Patriarch of Antioch.
1074
By place[edit]
Byzantine Empire[edit]
- Spring – Norman mercenaries, led by Roussel de Bailleul, proclaim John Doukas emperor of the Byzantine Empire. His nephew, Emperor Michael VII (Doukas), forms an alliance with Seljuk chieftain Suleiman ibn Qutulmish, who is raiding in the eastern regions of Anatolia. The Seljuk Turks ambush the Norman forces; Roussel and John are defeated and captured. But a ransom, raised by Roussel's wife, allows him to return to Amaseia.[13]
Europe[edit]
- February 2 – Treaty of Gerstungen: Emperor Henry IV is forced to restore the peace with Duke Otto of Nordheim (one of the Saxon leaders of the Saxon Rebellion). He signs a treaty in Gerstungen Castle, on the River Werra in Thuringia (modern Germany).
- February 7 – Battle of Montesarchio: Prince Pandulf IV, co-ruler of Benevento, is killed while fighting the Normans in southern Italy.
- March 14 – Battle of Mogyoród: King Solomon is defeated by his cousins, Duke Géza I and Ladislaus I. He is dethroned and Géza becomes the new ruler of Hungary.
- October 21 – The Belgium beer brand Affligem is founded.
Africa[edit]
- Spring – Badr al-Jamali becomes Chief Wazir (Grand Vizier) and effectively military dictator of the Fatimid Caliphate under Caliph Al-Mustansir Billah in Egypt.[14]
China[edit]
- Emperor Shen Zong of the Song Dynasty establishes a Marine Office and a Goods Control Bureau north-west of Shanghai, allowing for the loading and unloading of freight.
By topic[edit]
Religion[edit]
- Pope Gregory VII temporarily excommunicates the Norman nobleman Robert Guiscard.
1075
By place[edit]
Africa[edit]
- The Kingdom of Mapungubwe is established, in modern-day South Africa.
Byzantine Empire[edit]
- The future Emperor Alexios Komnenos captures the Norman rebel Roussel de Bailleul in Amaseia. Roussel had established a principality in eastern Anatolia in 1073 after rebelling against Emperor Michael VII Doukas, basing his power on his western mercenaries and local support in exchange for protection against invading Turkmen.[15]
Europe[edit]
- June 9 – First Battle of Langensalza: Emperor Henry IV defeats the Saxon nobles on the River Unstrut near Langensalza in Thuringia (modern Germany). He subjugates Saxony, and immediately tries to reassert his rights as the sovereign of northern Italy.
- Anund Gårdske is deposed as king of Svealand (also called Sweden proper). King Håkan the Red of Götaland proclaims himself ruler of all Sweden.
England[edit]
- Revolt of the Earls: The Earls Ralph de Gael, Roger de Breteuil and Waltheof, begin a revolt against King William I (the Conqueror) in the last serious act of resistance to the Norman Conquest.
- Roger de Breteuil is brought before the Great Council. He is deprived of his lands and sentenced to perpetual imprisonment. Ralph de Gael and Waltheof are charged as co-conspirators.
- August 25 – Council of London: Archbishop Lanfranc instigates the movement of English bishoprics. One of these is the bishopric of Sherborne and Wilton which is moved to Old Sarum.
Asia[edit]
- Summer – Shen Kuo, Chinese polymath scientist and statesman, solves a border dispute with the Liao Dynasty by dredging up old diplomatic records. He refutes Emperor Dao Zong's bluffs point for point during a meeting at Mt. Yongan (near modern-day Pingquan), reestablishing the rightful borders of the Song Dynasty.
- Vietnamese forces under General Lý Thường Kiệt defend Vietnam against a Chinese invasion.
- The Liao Dynasty version of the Buddhist Tripiṭaka is completed (approximate date).
By topic[edit]
Religion[edit]
- February – Pope Gregory VII holds a council in the Lateran Palace at Rome. He publishes a decree against laymen investiture (an act which will later cause the Investiture Controversy).
- April – The Dictatus papae (a compilation of 27 statements of powers) are included in the registry of Gregory VII, in which he asserts papal authority over earthly as well as spiritual rulers.
- December 8 – Gregory VII writes a letter of reprimand to Henry IV. He accuses him of breaching his word and continued support of excommunicated councilors.
- December 25 – Gregory VII is kidnapped in the church during Christmas night in Rome and briefly imprisoned by the Roman nobleman Cencio I Frangipane.
1076
By place[edit]
Europe[edit]
- January 24 – Synod of Worms: Emperor Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor, holds a synod in Worms (modern Germany). The assembly declares Pope Gregory VII deposed, and the bishops abandon their allegiance to him.
- February 22 – Gregory VII pronounces a sentence of excommunication against Henry IV at Rome. He is excluded from the Catholic Church, and all the bishops named by Henry are excommunicated.
- Summer – Dirk V, count of Holland, re-conquers West Frisia (modern Netherlands) from the Archdiocese of Utrecht. He besieges Bishop Conrad at the castle of IJsselmonde, taking him prisoner.
- October 8 – Demetrius Zvonimir is crowned as king of Croatia in Solin (near Split), in the Basilica of Saint Peter and Moses (known later as the Hollow Church) by a representative of Gregory VII.
- December 13 – Norman conquest of southern Italy: Italo-Norman forces under Robert Guiscard de Hauteville and Richard I of Capua, conquer the fortress city of Salerno after a short siege.
- December 26 – Bolesław II the Bold (or "the Generous") is crowned as King of Poland by Archbishop Bogumił in Gniezno Cathedral. Bolesław supports Gregory VII in his conflict against Henry IV.
England[edit]
- May 31 – Waltheof, Earl of Northumbria, a participant in the Revolt of the Earls against King William the Conqueror, is beheaded near Winchester.
- Approximate date – The Trial of Penenden Heath is held, with an important ruling regarding land rights subsequent to the Norman Conquest.
- November 1 – A frost begins that lasts until April 1077.[16]
Africa[edit]
- Koumbi Saleh, an important mercantile and political center of the Ghana Empire (modern Mauritania), is besieged by the Almoravids (approximate date).
Asia[edit]
- Vikramaditya VI deposes his older brother Someshvara II to become king of the Western Chalukya Empire (modern India).
By topic[edit]
Literature[edit]
- Anselm of Aosta, an Italian Benedictine abbot, completes his Monologion at the request of his fellow monks.
Religion[edit]
- Demetrius Zvonimir donates the Benedictine monastery of St. Gregory in Vrana to Gregory VII.
1077
By place[edit]
Byzantine Empire[edit]
- Fall – Nikephoros Bryennios (the Elder), governor (doux) of the Theme of Dyrrhachium in the western Balkans, and Nikephoros Botaneiates, a general (strategos) of the Theme of Anatolics (modern Turkey), are proclaimed emperors by their troops. Emperor Michael VII (Doukas) offers Bryennios the title of caesar (co-emperor) if he submits to his rule, but Bryennios refuses. He sets out from Dyrrhachium, and marches towards Constantinople.
Europe[edit]
- January 25 – Walk to Canossa: Emperor Henry IV travels to the Castle of Canossa near Reggio Emilia (Northern Italy), to visit Pope Gregory VII. He waits (with his wife Bertha of Savoy and son Conrad) at the gates for three days, for absolution of his excommunication. Gregory lifts the sentence, imposing on Henry a vow to comply with certain conditions (see Investiture Controversy).
- King Alfonso VI (the Brave) reaches an agreement with his cousin Sancho Ramírez, who is elected as king of Navarre. Alfonso annexes the territories of Álava, part of Gipuzkoa and La Bureba, he is crowned and adopts the title of Imperator totius Hispaniae ("Emperor of all Spain").[17]
- March 14 – German nobles opposing king Henry IV elected an antiking, Rudolf of Rheinfelden, despite king Henry having been absolved.
- April 3 – Henry IV grants the County of Friuli (with ducal status) to Sigaerd of Beilstein, patriarch of Aquileia. He creates the first Parliament, representing the communes as well the nobility and clergy.
- Hugh I, duke of Burgundy, supports Sancho Ramírez (or Sancho V) in his conquest of the Castle of Muñones from Emir Ahmad al-Muqtadir, who rules the Taifa of Zaragoza.[18]
- King Mihailo I is given the title "King of the Slavs" by Gregory VII. He becomes the first recognized ruler of the kingdom of Duklja (modern Montenegro).
England[edit]
- Robert II (Curthose) instigates his first insurrection against his father, King William I (the Conqueror), in Normandy.
- The first recorded trial by combat is held between Wulfstan and Walter.
- August 14 – A fire destroys much of London.[19]
Seljuk Empire[edit]
- Suleiman ibn Qutulmish, a cousin of late Sultan Alp Arslan, consolidates his leadership over the Oghuz Turks and founds the Sultanate of Rum (modern Turkey).[20]
- Anushtegin Gharchai becomes governor (shihna) of Khwarezm and a vassal of the Seljuk Empire (until 1097).
Africa[edit]
- The Almoravids complete the conquest of the Ghana Empire, and reach Spain (approximate date).
By topic[edit]
Arts[edit]
- The Bayeux Tapestry (embroidery) is completed, probably in England, possibly to unveil at the dedication of Bayeux Cathedral this year.[21]
Religion[edit]
- September 1 – Pope Gregory VII appoints Landulf as bishop of Pisa. He makes him permanent legate of the Holy See in Corsica.[22]
- Paul of Caen is installed as abbot of St. Albans in England. He commences the building of St. Albans Abbey Church.
- Pope Christodolos ends his reign as leader of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria (modern Egypt).
1078
By place[edit]
Byzantine Empire[edit]
- Spring – Nikephoros Botaneiates, a Byzantine general (strategos) of the Theme of the Anatolics, revolts against Emperor Michael VII (Doukas). With the support of the Seljuk Turks who provide him with troops, Nikephoros marches upon Nicaea (modern Turkey). He defeats the imperial army and proclaims himself emperor.
- March 24 – Nikephoros Botaneiates enters Constantinople in triumph and is crowned by Patriarch Cosmas I as emperor Nikephoros III of the Byzantine Empire. Michael VII resigns his throne after a 7-year reign and retires into the Monastery of Stoudios.[23]
- Battle of Kalavrye: The imperial forces of General Alexios Komnenos are victorious over the rebellious army (12,000 men) under Nikephoros Bryennios (the Elder), governor (doux) of the Theme of Dyrrhachium. Bryennios is captured and later blinded.
- Philaretos Brachamios abandons his claim to the Byzantine throne, on being appointed governor of Antioch, a foundation of the later Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia.
Europe[edit]
- August 7 – Battle of Mellrichstadt: Emperor Henry IV defeats the German anti-king Rudolf of Rheinfelden, duke of Swabia, near Mellrichstadt (modern Germany).
- October 3 – Grand Prince Iziaslav I dies, and is succeeded by Vsevolod I, who unites the principalities – Kiev, Chernigov and Pereyaslavl – in Kievan Rus'.[24]
England[edit]
- The White Tower of the Tower of London is begun, under the direction of Gundulf (or Gundulph), bishop of Rochester (approximate date).
Africa[edit]
- The Almoravid emir, Yusuf ibn Tashfin, besieges Ceuta. Since the city can receive help from the sea, the siege will last until 1083.
China[edit]
- By this year, the iron industry in the Song Dynasty is producing a total weight of 127,000,000 kg (125,000 t) of iron product per year.
By topic[edit]
Religion[edit]
- July 11 – The Romanesque tympanum of Santiago de Compostela Cathedral in Galicia (modern Spain) is constructed.
- Anselm is elected abbot of Bec Abbey, in Normandy.[25]
- A church council in Poitiers deposes Bishop Sylvester of Rennes who had bought his office in 1076. This leads also to the flight of Robert of Arbrissel to Paris where he begins his studies.[26]
1079
By place[edit]
Europe[edit]
- April 11 – Stanislaus of Szczepanów, bishop of Kraków, is executed on orders by King Bolesław II the Generous. The way in which his sentence is carried out causes a revolt among the Polish nobles. Bolesław is forced to flee, to take refuge at the court of King Ladislaus I of Hungary. He is succeeded by his brother Władysław I, as ruler of Poland.[27]
- Battle of Cabra: Moorish forces, aided by Castilian knights under El Cid (Rodrigo Diaz), defeat and rout the invading army of Emir Abdallah ibn Buluggin of Granada, near the town of Cabra (modern Spain).
- Emperor Henry IV appoints Frederick I as duke of Swabia at Hohenstaufen Castle. Henry's 7-year-old daughter Agnes of Waiblingen is betrothed to Frederick who founds the Hohenstaufen Dynasty.
- Upon the death of Håkan the Red, Halsten Stenkilsson returns as king of Sweden, jointly with his brother Inge the Elder (approximate date).
England[edit]
- King William the Conqueror establishes the New Forest in Southern England. He proclaims it as a royal forest, using it for hunting, mainly of deer.[28]
Seljuk Empire[edit]
- The Seljuk Turks under Sultan Suleiman ibn Qutulmish reach and occupy the western coast of Asia Minor, an area known since the Archaic Period (c. 800–c. 500 BC) as Ionia (modern Turkey).[29]
By topic[edit]
Astronomy[edit]
- Omar Khayyam, Persian mathematician and astronomer, calculates a 33 year calendar consisting of 25 ordinary years that include 365 days, and 8 leap years that include 366 days, the most accurate calculation of his time. Khayyam, in his Treatise on Demonstrations of Problems in Algebra, produces a complete classification of cubic equations and their geometric solutions (approximate date).
Religion[edit]
- Constance, queen of Castile and León, founds a monastery in Burgos (approximate date).
- ^ a b c d e Palmer, Alan; Palmer, Veronica (1992). The Chronology of British History. London: Century Ltd. pp. 53–55. ISBN 0-7126-5616-2.
- ^ "British History Timeline, Norman Britain, BBC". Retrieved 2007-12-23.
- ^ Williams, Hywel (2005). Cassell's Chronology of World History. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. pp. 112–113. ISBN 0-304-35730-8.
- ^ William of Malmesbury.
- ^ "The History of Canterbury Cathedral". Archived from the original on October 27, 2007. Retrieved December 23, 2007.
- ^ Adam of Bremen. Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum.
- ^ Kleinhenz, Christopher (2010). Medieval Italy: an encyclopedia. New York: Routledge. p. 95. ISBN 978-0-415-93930-0.
- ^ John Julius Norwich (1991). Byzantium: The Apogee – The Disaster, p. 357. ISBN 0-39453779-3.
- ^ Brian Todd Carey (2012). Road to Manzikert: Byzantine and Islamic Warfare (527–1071), p. 155. ISBN 978-1-84884-215-1.
- ^ Fletcher, R. A. (1987). "Reconquest and Crusade in Spain c. 1050-1150". Transactions of the Royal Historical Society. 5. 37: 31–47 [35]. JSTOR 3679149.
- ^ Canellas, Angel (1951). "Las Cruzadas de Aragon en el Siglo XI". Argensola: Revista de Ciencias Sociales del Instituto de Estudios Altoaragoneses. 7. ISSN 0518-4088. Archived from the original on July 15, 2014. Retrieved February 22, 2012.
- ^ Hibbert, Christopher (1987). Rome: The Biography of the City. New York: Penguin. p. 87. ISBN 0-14-007078-8.
- ^ Brian Todd Carey (2012). Road to Manzikert: Byzantine and Islamic Warfare (527–1071), p. 155. ISBN 978-1-84884-215-1.
- ^ David Nicolle (2003). The First Crusade 1096–99: Conquest of the Holy Land, p. 12. ISBN 978-1-84176-515-0.
- ^ Alexander Daniel Beihammer (2017). Byzantium and the Emergence of Muslim-Turkish Anatolia, Ca. 1040-1130, p. 210-212.
- ^ Stratton, J.M. (1969). Agricultural Records. John Baker. ISBN 0-212-97022-4.
- ^ Minguez Fernández, José María (2009). Alfonso VI/Gregorio VII. Soberanía imperial frente a soberanía papal, pp. 30–33. ISSN 1575-801X.
- ^ Canellas, Angel (1951). "Las Cruzadas de Aragon en el Siglo XI". Argensola: Revista de Ciencias Sociales del Instituto de Estudios Altoaragoneses. 7. ISSN 0518-4088. Archived from the original on July 15, 2014. Retrieved February 22, 2012.
- ^ "Fires, Great", in The Insurance Cyclopeadia: Being an Historical Treasury of Events and Circumstances Connected with the Origin and Progress of Insurance, p. 25. Cornelius Walford, ed. (C. and E. Layton, 1876).
- ^ Claude Cahen (1968). Pre-Ottoman Turkey: a general survey of the material and spiritual culture and history c. 1070–1330. Trans. J. Jones-Williams, pp. 73–74 (New York: Taplinger).
- ^ Grape, Wolfgang (1994). The Bayeux tapestry: monument to a Norman triumph. Prestel. ISBN 978-3-7913-1365-8. Retrieved 2012-05-03.
- ^ Cowdrey, H. E. J. (1998). Pope Gregory VII, 1073–1085, p. 279. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
- ^ John Julius Norwich (1991). Byzantium: The Apogee, p. 361. ISBN 0-394-53779-3.
- ^ Martin, Janet (1993). Medieval Russia, 980–1584, pp. 33–35. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-67636-6.
- ^ Dehsen, Christian D. Von; Harris, Scott L. (1999). Philosophers and Religious Leaders. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 10. ISBN 9781573561525.
- ^ Müller, Annalena (2021). From the Cloister to the State: Fontevraud and the Making of Bourbon France, 1642-1100. Routledge. p. 39. ISBN 9781000436297. Retrieved 6 March 2023.
- ^ Richard Brzezinski (1998). History of Poland: The successors of Bolesław the Brave, p. 19. ISBN 83-7212-019-6.
- ^ "Take a stroll through a piece of old England". The Independent. December 12, 2004. Archived from the original on May 1, 2022. Retrieved 28 July 2018.
- ^ Brian Todd Carey (2012). Road to Manzikert: Byzantine and Islamic Warfare (527–1071), p. 159. ISBN 978-1-84884-215-1.