In aviation safety, threat and error management (TEM) is an overarching safety management approach that assumes that pilots will naturally make mistakes and encounter risky situations during flight operations. Rather than try to avoid these threats and errors, its primary focus is on teaching pilots to manage these issues so they do not impair safety. Its goal is to maintain safety margins by training pilots and flight crews to detect and respond to events that are likely to cause damage (threats) as well as mistakes that are most likely to be made (errors) during flight operations.[1]
TEM allows crews to measure the complexities of a specific organization's context — meaning that the threats and errors encountered by pilots will vary depending upon the type of flight operation — and record human performance in that context.[2] TEM also considers technical (e.g. mechanical) and environmental issues, and incorporates strategies from Crew Resource Management to teach pilots to manage threats and errors.
The TEM framework was developed in 1994 by psychologists at University of Texas based on the investigation of accidents of high capacity Regular Public Transport (RPT) airlines.[3] However, an evaluation method was needed to identify threats and errors during flight operations and to add information to existing TEM data.[4][5] A Line Operations Safety Audit (LOSA) serves this purpose and involves the identification and collection of safety-related information — on crew performance, environmental conditions, and operational complexity — by a highly trained observer.[5][6] LOSA data is used to assess the effectiveness of an organization's training program and to find out how trained procedures are being implemented in day-to-day flights.
^Dekker, Sidney; Lundström, Johan (May 2007). "From Threat and Error Management (TEM) to Resilience". Journal of Human Factors and Aerospace Safety: 1. Retrieved 6 October 2015.
^Maurino, Dan (18 April 2005). "Threat and Error Management (TEM)" (PDF). Coordinator, Flight Safety and Human Factors Programme - ICAO. Canadian Aviation Safety Seminar (CASS): 1. Retrieved 6 October 2015.
^Cite error: The named reference Thomas was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
^ abEarl, Laurie; Murray, Patrick; Bates, Paul (2011). "Line Operations Safety Audit (LOSA) for the management of safety in single pilot operations (LOSA:SP) in Australia and New Zealand". Aeronautica (Griffith University Aerospace Strategic Study Centre) (1): 2.
^Thomas, Matthew (2003). "Operational Fidelity in Simulation-Based Training: The Use of Data from Threat and Error Management Analysis in Instructional Systems Design" (PDF). Proceedings of SimTecT2003: Simulation Conference: 2. Retrieved 19 October 2015.
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