List of intellectuals of the Enlightenment information
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The Age of Enlightenment was a broad philosophical movement in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The traditional theological-political system that placed Scripture at the center, with religious authorities and monarchies claiming and enforcing their power by divine right, was challenged and overturned in the realm of ideas. In several places these Enlightenment ideas brought fundamental changes undermining religious authority, ushering in religious toleration, freedom of thought, and fueled revolutionary action in some. This alphabetical list of intellectuals includes figures largely from Western Europe and British North America. Overwhelmingly these intellectuals were male, but the emergence of women philosophers who made contributions is notable.
Person
Dates
Nationality
Notes
Thomas Abbt
1738–1766
German
Author of "Vom Tode für das Vaterland" (On dying for one's nation).
Jean le Rond d'Alembert
1717–1783
French
Mathematician and physicist, one of the editors of the Encyclopédie.[1]
Francis Bacon
1561–1626
English
Philosopher who started the revolution in empirical thought that characterized much of the Enlightenment.[2]
Pierre Bayle
1647–1706
French
Author of the widely-circulated and influential work in French, not Latin, Dictionnaire historique et critique, and "Nouvelles de la république des lettres"; following Spinoza and others he was an advocate tolerance between the different religious beliefs.
James Beattie
1735–1803
Scottish
Poet, moralist, and philosopher.
Cesare Beccaria
1738–1794
Italian
Criminal law reformer, best known for his treatise On Crimes and Punishments (1764).
Balthasar Bekker
1634–1698
Dutch
Dutch Reformed theologian and a key figure in the early Enlightenment. In his book De Philosophia Cartesiana (1668) Bekker argued that theology and philosophy each had their separate terrains and that Nature can no more be explained from Scripture than can theological truth be deduced from Nature. Author of The World Bewitched in Dutch, not Latin (1692-93).[3]
George Berkeley
1685–1753
Irish
Philosopher and mathematician famous for developing the theory of subjective idealism.[4]
Justus Henning Boehmer
1674–1749
German
Ecclesiastical jurist, one of the first reformers of the church law and the civil law which was the basis for further reforms and maintained until the 20th century.
Ruđer Josip Bošković (Roger Joseph Boscovich)
1711–1787
Ragusan (Serbian[5][6][7])
A physicist, astronomer, mathematician, philosopher, diplomat, poet, theologian, Jesuit priest, and a polymath from the Republic of Ragusa (today Dubrovnik, Croatia), who studied and lived in Italy and France where he also published many of his works. He produced a precursor of atomic theory and made many contributions to astronomy, including the first geometric procedure for determining the equator of a rotating planet from three observations of a surface feature and for computing the orbit of a planet from three observations of its position. In 1753 he also discovered the absence of atmosphere on the Moon.
James Boswell
1740–1795
Scottish
Biographer of Samuel Johnson, helped established the norms for writing biography in general.
G.L. Buffon
1707–1788
French
Biologist, author of L'Histoire Naturelle considered Natural Selection and the similarities between humans and apes.
Edmund Burke
1729–1797
Irish
Parliamentarian and political philosopher, best known for pragmatism, considered important to both Enlightenment and conservative thinking.
Joseph Butler
1692–1752
English
Bishop, theologian, Christian apologist, and philosopher. He also played an important, though under appreciated, role in the development of eighteenth-century economic discourse.
George Campbell
1719-1796
Scottish
A figure of the Scottish Enlightenment, known as a philosopher, minister, and professor of divinity. Campbell was primarily interested in rhetoric and faculty psychology.
Dimitrie Cantemir
1673–1723
Moldavian(Romanian)
Philosopher, historian, composer, musicologist, linguist, ethnographer, and geographer.
Émilie du Châtelet
1706–1749
French
Mathematician, physicist, and author. Translated Newton's Principia with commentary.
Anders Chydenius
1729–1803
Finnish-Swedish
Priest and an ecclesiastical member of the Riksdag, contemporary known as the leading classical liberal of Nordic history.
Francisco Javier Clavijero
1731–1787
Mexican
Historian, best known for his Antique History of Mexico.
Étienne Bonnot de Condillac
1714–1780
French
Philosopher.
Marquis de Condorcet
1743–1794
French
Philosopher, mathematician, and early political scientist who devised the concept of a Condorcet method.
Anne Conway
1631-1679
English
English rationalist philosopher, influenced Gottfried Leibniz, considered England most important woman philosopher. [8][9] Author of The Principles of the Most Ancient and Modern Philosophy, published in Latin 1690, in English 1692.
Mihály Csokonai Vitéz
1773-1805
Hungarian
Hungarian poet, main person in the Hungarian literary revival of the Enlightenment.
Ekaterina Dashkova
1743–1810
Russian
Director of the Imperial Academy of Arts and Sciences (known now as the Russian Academy of Sciences).
Denis Diderot
1713–1784
French
Founder of the Encyclopédie, speculated on free will and attachment to material objects, art critic, contributed to the theory of literature.
Leonhard Euler
1707–1783
Swiss
Mathematician, physicist, astronomer, geographer, logician and engineer.
Benito Jerónimo Feijóo y Montenegro
1676–1764
Spanish
The most prominent promoter of the critical empiricist attitude at the dawn of the Spanish Enlightenment. See also the Spanish Martín Sarmiento (1695–1772)
Adam Ferguson
1723-1816
Scottish
Philosopher and historian.
Gaetano Filangieri
1753–1788
Italian
Philosopher and jurist.
Bernard le Bovier de Fontenelle
1657–1757
French
Author.
Denis Fonvizin
1744–1792
Russian
Writer and playwright.
José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia
1766–1840
Paraguayan
First president of Paraguay. Introduced radical political ideas never-before seen in South America to Paraguay, making his country prosperous and more secure than any other in South-America.
Benjamin Franklin
1706–1790
American
Statesman, scientist, political philosopher, author. As a philosopher known for his writings on nationality, economic matters, aphorisms published in Poor Richard's Almanack and polemics in favor of American Independence. Involved with writing the United States Declaration of Independence and the Constitution of 1787.
Ferdinando Galiani
1728-1787
Italian
Economist.
Luigi Galvani
1737–1798
Italian
Physician, physicist and philosopher who was a pioneer in the studies of Bioelectricity.[10]
Antonio Genovesi
1712–1769
Italian
Writer on philosophy and political economy.
Edward Gibbon
1737–1794
English
Historian best known for his Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.
Johann Wolfgang Goethe
1749–1832
German
Closely identified with Enlightenment values, progressing from Sturm und Drang ("Storm and Stress"); leader in Weimar Classicism.
Olympe de Gouges
1748–1793
French
Playwright and activist who championed feminist politics, author of Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen. She was beheaded during the French Revolution.
Hugo Grotius
1583–1645
Dutch
Philosopher of law and jurist who laid the foundations for international law, based on natural law. Wrote De jure belli ac pacis.
Alexander Hamilton
1755–1804
American
Economist, political theorist and politician. A major protagonist for the Constitution of the United States, and the single greatest contributor to The Federalist Papers, advocating for the constitution's ratification through detailed examinations of its construction, philosophical and moral basis, and intent.
Joseph Haydn
1732–1809
Austrian
A leading composer of the era; revolutionized i.a. the symphonic form.
Claude Adrien Helvétius
1715–1771
French
Philosopher and writer. Famous for De l'esprit (On Mind).
Johann Gottfried Herder
1744–1803
German
Theologian and linguist. Proposed that language determines thought, introduced concepts of ethnic study and nationalism, influential on later Romantic thinkers. Early supporter of democracy and republican self-rule.
Thomas Hobbes
1588–1679
English
Philosopher who wrote Leviathan, a key text in political philosophy. While Hobbes justifies absolute monarchy, this work is the first to posit that the temporal power of a monarch comes about, not because God has ordained that he be monarch, but because his subjects have freely yielded their own power and freedom to him – in other words, Hobbes replaces the divine right of kings with an early formulation of the social contract. Hobbes' work was condemned by reformers for its defense of absolutism, and by traditionalists for its claim that the power of government derives from the power of its subjects rather than the will of God.
Baron d'Holbach
1723–1789
French
Author, Encyclopédist and Europe's first outspoken atheist. Roused much controversy over his criticism of religion as a whole in his work The System of Nature.
Ludvig Holberg
1684–1754
Norwegian
Writer, essayist, historian and playwright.
Henry Home, Lord Kames
1696–1782
Scottish
Lawyer and philosopher. Patron of Adam Smith and David Hume. See Scottish Enlightenment.
Robert Hooke
1635–1703
English
Probably the leading experimenter of his age, Curator of Experiments for the Royal Society. Performed the work which quantified such concepts as Boyle's Law and the inverse-square nature of gravitation, father of the science of microscopy.
Wilhelm von Humboldt
1767–1835
German
Linguist, diplomat, founder of the modern educational system, philosopher.
David Hume
1711–1776
Scottish
Philosopher, historian and essayist. Best known for his empiricism and rational skepticism, advanced doctrines of naturalism and material causes. Influenced Kant and Adam Smith.[11]
Francis Hutcheson
1694–1746
Scottish
Philosopher.
Christiaan Huygens
1629–1695
Dutch
Physicist and mathematician who made groundbreaking contributions in optics and mechanics and is responsible for the mathematization of physics. Author of Horologium Oscillatorium and Treatise on Light.
Thomas Jefferson
1743–1826
American
Statesman, political philosopher, educator. As a philosopher best known for the United States Declaration of Independence (1776), especially "All men are created equal", and his support of democracy in theory and practice. A polymath, he promoted higher education as a way to uplift the entire nation .
Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos
1744–1811
Spanish
Main figure of the Spanish Enlightenment. Preeminent statesman.
Immanuel Kant
1724–1804
German
Philosopher and physicist. Established critical philosophy on a systematic basis, proposed a material theory for the origin of the solar system, wrote on ethics and morals. Prescribed a politics of Enlightenment in What is Enlightenment? (1784). Influenced by Hume and Rousseau. Important figure in German Idealism, and important to the work of Fichte and Hegel.
Vasyl Karazin
1773–1842
Russian and Ukrainian
Enlightenment figure, intellectual, inventor, founder of The Ministry of National Education in Russian Empire and scientific publisher in Ukraine. Founder of Kharkiv University, which now bears his name. Also known for opposing to what he saw as colonial exploitation of Ukraine by the Russian Empire, even though he himself was ethnically Serbian.
Adriaan Koerbagh
1633–1669
Dutch
A follower of Spinoza Koerbagh was among the most radical figures of the Age of Enlightenment, rejecting and reviling the religious authorities and state as unreliable institutions and exposing theologians' and lawyers' language as vague and opaque tools to blind the people in order to maintain their own power. He wrote Een Bloemhof in 1668 in Dutch rather than Latin, which brought him to the immediate attention of authorities, who suppressed his work. He was arrested, tried, and imprisoned, where he rapidly died. His imprisonment and death was a cautionary tale for radical philosophers, including Spinoza, who subsequently published only anonymously.[12]
Hugo Kołłątaj
1750–1812
Polish
Active in the Commission for National Education and the Society for Elementary Textbooks, and reformed the Kraków Academy, of which he was rector in 1783–86. Co-authored the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth's Constitution of May 3, 1791, and founded the Assembly of Friends of the Government Constitution to assist in the document's implementation.
Adamantios Korais
1748–1833
Greek
Leading philosopher and scholar of the Neo-Hellenic Enlightenment who exerted enormous influence on the Greek language, culture and Greece's legal system.
Ignacy Krasicki
1735–1801
Polish
Leading poet of the Polish Enlightenment.
Joseph-Louis Lagrange
1736–1813
Italian-French
Major mathematician, famous for his contributions to analysis, number theory, and mechanics.
Antoine Lavoisier
1743–1794
French
Founder of modern chemistry; executed in the French Revolution for his politics
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek
1632–1723
Dutch
The father of microbiology and known for his pioneering work in microscopy and for his contributions toward the establishment of microbiology as a scientific discipline. Van Leeuwenhoek was the first to discover living cells, bacteria, spermatozoa and red blood cells.
Gottfried Leibniz
1646–1716
German
Polymath-philosopher, mathematician, diplomat, jurist, historian; rival of Newton.
Giacomo Leopardi
1798–1837
Italian
Poet, essayist, philosopher, and philologist.
Gotthold Ephraim Lessing
1729–1781
German
Dramatist, critic, political philosopher. Created theatre in the German language. Friend of Moses Mendelssohn, whose work he promoted.
Georg Christoph Lichtenberg
1742–1799
German
Physicist, satirist, and aphorist.
Carl von Linné (Carl Linnaeus)
1707–1778
Swedish
Botanist, physician, and zoologist, who laid the foundations for the modern scheme of binomial nomenclature. Known as the father of modern taxonomy.
John Locke
1632–1704
English
Philosopher. Important empiricist who expanded and extended the work of Francis Bacon and Thomas Hobbes. Seminal thinker in the realm of the relationship between the state and the individual, the contractual basis of the state and the rule of law. Argued for personal liberty emphasizing the rights of property.
Mikhail Lomonosov
1711–1765
Russian
Polymath, scientist and writer, who made important contributions to literature, education, and science.
Gabriel Bonnot de Mably
1709-1785
French
Philosopher and historian.
James Madison
1751–1836
American
Statesman and political philosopher. Played a key role in the writing of the United States Constitution and providing a theoretical justification for it in his contributions to The Federalist Papers; author of the American Bill of Rights.
Sylvain Maréchal
1750–1803
French
Essayist, poet, and philosopher.
George Mason
1725–1792
American
Statesman, authored the Virginia Declaration of Rights; along with Madison called the "Father of the United States Bill of Rights".
Moses Mendelssohn
1729–1786
Jewish German
Philosopher of Jewish Enlightenment in Prussia (Haskalah), honoured by his friend Lessing in his drama as Nathan the Wise. Mendelssohn took from Spinoza's Theological-Political Treatise (1670) that Judaism is not a revealed religion but a belief based on law, and that religious toleration and liberty of conscience are essential goals.[13][14]
Jean Meslier
1664–1729
French
Roman Catholic priest, philosopher and first atheist writer since ancient times. Author of Testament, a book length essay, which supplied arguments and rhetoric used by other enlightenment authors such as Denis Diderot, Baron d'Holbach and Voltaire.
La Mettrie
1709–1751
French
Physician and early French materialist philosopher. Best known as author of L'homme machine (Man a Machine).
John Millar
1735–1801
Scottish
Philosopher and historian.
Teodor Janković-Mirijevski
1741–1814
Serbian and Russian
Educational reformer, academic, scholar and pedagogical writer
James Burnett, Lord Monboddo
1714–1799
Scottish
Philosopher, jurist, pre-evolutionary thinker and contributor to linguistic evolution. See Scottish Enlightenment
Josef Vratislav Monse
1733–1793
Czech
Professor of Law at University of Olomouc, leading figure of Enlightenment in the Habsburg monarchy
Montesquieu
1689–1755
French
Political thinker. Famous for his articulation of the theory of separation of powers, taken for granted in modern discussions of government and implemented in many constitutions all over the world. Political scientist, Donald Lutz, found that Montesquieu was the most frequently quoted authority on government in colonial America.[15]
Leandro Fernández de Moratín
1760–1828
Spanish
Dramatist and translator, support of republicanism and free thinking. Transitional figure to Romanticism.
Henry More
1614-1687
English
Philosopher and theologian of the Cambridge Platonist school. Teacher and correspondent of Anne Conway; author of numerous works, including the Divine Dialogues (1688) and An Antidote against Atheism, or an Appeal to the Natural Faculties of the Minde of Man, whether there be not a God, 1653
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
1756–1791
Austrian
A leading composer of the era. Influenced by Haydn, Mozart was a child prodigy born in Salzburg. He was quite popular throughout Europe in his lifetime. He died at the age of 35.
José Celestino Mutis
1755–1808
Spanish
Botanist; lead the first botanic expeditions to South America, and built a major collection of plants.
Isaac Newton
1642–1727
English
Lucasian professor of mathematics, Cambridge University; author of 'Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica' and 'Opticks'.
Nikolay Novikov
1744–1818
Russian
Philanthropist and journalist who sought to raise the culture of Russian readers and publicly argued with the Empress. See Russian Enlightenment.
Dositej Obradović
1739–1811
Serbian
Writer, linguist, educator, influential proponent of Serbian cultural nationalism, and founder of The Ministry of National Education in Karađorđe's Serbia, and founder of the University of Belgrade.
Zaharije Orfelin
1726–1785
Serbian
Polymath-poet, writer, historian, translator, engraver, editor, publisher, etc.
Francesco Mario Pagano
1748–1799
Italian
Jurist and philosopher, one of the pioneers of modern criminal law.
Thomas Paine
1737–1809
English/American
Pamphleteer, most famous for Common Sense (1776), calling for American independence as the most rational solution.
Marquis of Pombal
1699–1782
Portuguese
Statesman notable for his swift and competent leadership in the aftermath of the 1755 Lisbon earthquake. He also implemented sweeping economic policies to regulate commercial activity and standardize quality throughout the country.
Stanisław August Poniatowski
1732–1798
Polish
Last king of independent Poland, a leading light of the Enlightenment in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, and co-author of one of the world's first modern constitutions, the Constitution of May 3, 1791.
Richard Price
1723–1791
Welsh
Philosopher, preacher, and mathematician.
Joseph Priestley
1733–1804
English
Philosopher, theologian, and chemist.
François Quesnay
1694–1774
French
Economist of the Physiocratic school.
Alexander Radishchev
1749–1802
Russian
Writer and philosopher. Brought the tradition of radicalism in Russian literature to prominence.
Jovan Rajić
1726–1801
Serbian
Writer, historian, traveller, and pedagogue, considered to be one of the greatest Serbian academics of the 18th century.
Guillaume Thomas François Raynal
1713–1796
French
Historian and abolitionist.
Thomas Reid
1710–1796
Scottish
Philosopher who developed Common Sense Realism.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
1712–1778
Swiss
Political philosopher, educational reformer, composer; Encyclopédist who influenced many Enlightenment figures but did not himself believe in the primacy of reason and was a forerunner of Romanticism.
Giovanni Salvemini
1708-1791
Italian
Mathematician and astronomer.
Friedrich Schiller
1759–1805
German
Philosopher, poet, and playwright.
Adam Smith
1723–1790
Scottish
Economist and philosopher. Wrote The Wealth of Nations, in which he argued that wealth was not money in itself, but wealth was derived from the added value in manufactured items produced by both invested capital and labour. Sometimes considered to be the founding father of the laissez-faire economic theory, but in fact argues for some degree of government control in order to maintain equity. Just prior to this he wrote Theory of Moral Sentiments, explaining how it is humans function and interact through what he calls sympathy, setting up important context for The Wealth of Nations.
Jan Śniadecki
1756–1830
Polish
Mathematician, philosopher, and astronomer.
Jędrzej Śniadecki
1768–1838
Polish
Writer, physician, chemist, and biologist.
Baruch Spinoza
1632–1677
Dutch
Philosopher and author of the Ethics, in which he denied the transcendence of God and compared the existence of God to nature ('deus sive natura').
Alexander Sumarokov
1717–1777
Russian
Poet and playwright who created classical theatre in Russia.
Emanuel Swedenborg
1688–1772
Swedish
Natural philosopher and theologian whose search for the operation of the soul in the body led him to construct a detailed metaphysical model for spiritual-natural causation.
Matthew Tindal
1657–1733
English
Deist. His works, highly influential at the dawn of the Enlightenment, caused great controversy and challenged the Christian consensus of his time.
John Toland
1670–1722
Irish
Philosopher and satirist.
Josiah Tucker
1713–1799
Welsh
Welsh churchman, known as an economist and political writer. He was concerned in his works with free trade, Jewish emancipation and American independence. He became Dean of Gloucester in 1758.
Pietro Verri
1728-1797
Italian
Philosopher, economist, and historian.
Giambattista Vico
1668–1744
Italian
Political philosopher, rhetorician, historian, and jurist.
Voltaire (François-Marie Arouet)
1694–1778
French
Highly influential writer, historian and philosopher. He promoted Newtonianism and denounced organized religion as pernicious.
Adam Weishaupt
1748–1830
German
Founded the Order of the Illuminati.
Christoph Martin Wieland
1733–1813
German
Philosopher and poet.
Christian Wolff
1679–1754
German
Philosopher and mathematician.
Mary Wollstonecraft
1759–1797
English
Writer, and pioneer feminist.
^"The Encyclopedia of Diderot & D'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project." The Encyclopedia of Diderot & D'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project. N.p., n.d. Web. 17 Nov. 2014.
^Enlightenment (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy), Plato.stanford.edu, 2010-08-20, retrieved 2012-02-17
^David, H. A.; Edwards, A. W. F. (29 June 2013). Annotated Readings in the History of Statistics. Springer. ISBN 978-1-4757-3500-0.
^Olson, Richard S. (8 March 2015). Scottish Philosophy and British Physics, 1740-1870: A Study in the Foundations of the Victorian Scientific Style. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-7249-7.
^Levy, Joel (29 September 2016). The Infinite Tortoise: The Curious Thought Experiments of History's Great Thinkers. Michael O'Mara Books. ISBN 978-1-78243-638-6.
^Trevor-Roper, Hugh. One Hundred Letters from Hugh Trevor-Roper, Oxford 2014, 73
^Israel, Jonathan I. Spinoza, Life and Legacy. Oxford: Oxford University Press 2023, 1127-28
^Sabbatini, Renato. "The Discovery of Bioelectricity. Galvani and Volta." Sabbatini, R.M.E.: The Discovery of Bioelectricity. Galvani and Volta. The State University of Campinas, 1998. Web. 17 Nov. 2014.
^Fieser, James. "David Hume." Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. N.p., n.d. Web. 17 Nov. 2014.
^Israel, Radical Enlightenment, 794
^Altmann, Alexander. Moses Mendelssohn: A Biographical Study. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press 1973
^Smith, Steven B. Spinoza, Liberalism, and the Question of Jewish Identity. New Haven: Yale University Press 1997, 170
^"The Relative Influence of European Writers on Late Eighteenth-Century American Political Thought", American Political Science Review 78,1 (March 1984), 189–197.
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