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Incest (/ˈɪnsɛst/ IN-sest) is human sexual activity between family members or close relatives.[1][2] This typically includes sexual activity between people in consanguinity (blood relations), and sometimes those related by lineage. It is forbidden and considered immoral in most societies, and can lead to an increased risk of genetic disorders in children in case of pregnancy.
The incest taboo is one of the most widespread of all cultural taboos, both in present and in past societies.[3] Most modern societies have laws regarding incest or social restrictions on closely consanguineous marriages.[3] In societies where it is illegal, consensual adult incest is seen by some as a victimless crime.[4][5] Some cultures extend the incest taboo to relatives with no consanguinity, such as milk-siblings, stepsiblings, and adoptive siblings, albeit sometimes with less intensity.[6][7] Third-degree relatives (such as half-aunt, half-nephew, first cousin) on average have 12.5% common genetic heritage, and sexual relations between them are viewed differently in various cultures, from being discouraged to being socially acceptable.[8] Children of incestuous relationships have been regarded as illegitimate,[where?] and are still so regarded in some societies today. In most cases, the parents did not have the option to marry to remove that status, as incestuous marriages were, and are, normally also prohibited.
A common justification for prohibiting incest is avoiding inbreeding, a collection of genetic disorders suffered by the children of parents with a close genetic relationship.[9] Such children are at greater risk of congenital disorders, developmental and physical disability, and death; that risk is proportional to their parents' coefficient of relationship, a measure of how closely the parents are related genetically.[9][10] However, cultural anthropologists have noted that inbreeding avoidance cannot form the sole basis for the incest taboo because the boundaries of the incest prohibition vary widely between cultures and not necessarily in ways that maximize the avoidance of inbreeding.[9][11][12][13]
In some societies, such as those of Ancient Egypt, brother–sister, father–daughter, mother–son, cousin–cousin, aunt–nephew, uncle–niece, and other combinations of relations within a royal family were married as a means of perpetuating the royal lineage.[14][15] Some societies have different views about what constitutes illegal or immoral incest. For example, in Samoa, marriage between a brother and an older sister was allowed, while marriage between a brother and a younger sister was declared as unethical.[16] However, sexual relations with a first-degree relative (meaning a parent, sibling, or child) are almost universally forbidden.[17]
- ^ "Incest". Oxford University Press. 2013. Archived from the original on 26 June 2013. Retrieved 27 August 2013.
- ^ "Incest". Rape, Abuse & Incest National Network (RAINN). 2009. Retrieved 27 August 2013.
- ^ a b Bittles, Alan Holland (2012). Consanguinity in Context. Cambridge University Press. pp. 178–187. ISBN 978-0521781862. Retrieved 27 August 2013.
- ^ Hipp, Dietmar (11 March 2008). "German High Court Takes a Look at Incest". Der Spiegel. Retrieved 12 April 2008.
- ^ Wolf, Arthur P.; Durham, William H. (2004). Inbreeding, Incest, and the Incest Taboo: The State of Knowledge at the Turn of the Century. Stanford University Press. p. 169. ISBN 978-0-8047-5141-4.
- ^ Encyclopedia of Love in World Religions – Volume 1 – Page 321, Yudit Kornberg Greenberg – 2008
- ^ Language and Social Relations – Page 379, Asif Agha – 2007.
- ^ The Encyclopedia of Genetic Disorders and Birth Defects – Page 101, James Wynbrandt, Mark D. Ludman – 2009.
- ^ a b c Wolf, Arthur P.; Durham, William H. (2004). Inbreeding, Incest, and the Incest Taboo: The State of Knowledge at the Turn of the Century. Stanford University Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-8047-5141-4.
- ^ Fareed, M; Afzal, M (2014). "Estimating the inbreeding depression on cognitive behavior: A population based study of child cohort". PLOS ONE. 9 (10): e109585. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...9j9585F. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0109585. PMC 4196914. PMID 25313490.
- ^ Schneider, D. M. (1976). "The meaning of incest". The Journal of the Polynesian Society. 85 (2): 149–169.
- ^ White, L. A. (1948). "The definition and prohibition of incest". American Anthropologist. 50 (3): 416–435. doi:10.1525/aa.1948.50.3.02a00020. PMID 18874938.
- ^ Schechner, R (1971). "Incest and culture: A reflection on Claude Lévi-Strauss". Psychoanalytic Review. 58 (4): 563–72. PMID 4948055.
- ^ Maurice Godelier, Métamorphoses de la parenté, 2004
- ^ "New Left Review – Jack Goody: The Labyrinth of Kinship". Retrieved 24 July 2007.
- ^ Lechte, John (24 February 2003). Key Contemporary Concepts From Abjection to Zeno's Paradox. SAGE Publications. p. 82. ISBN 9780761965343.
- ^ The Tapestry of Culture: An Introduction to Cultural Anthropology, Ninth Ed., Abraham Rosman, Paula G. Rubel, Maxine Weisgrau, 2009, AltaMira Press, p. 101