Intercalary located akinete of Dolichospermum smithiiTerminally located akinete of Gloeotrichia
An akinete is an enveloped, thick-walled, non-motile, dormant cell formed by filamentous, heterocyst-forming cyanobacteria under the order Nostocales and Stigonematales.[1][2][3][4] Akinetes are resistant to cold and desiccation.[1] They also accumulate and store various essential material, both of which allows the akinete to serve as a survival structure for up to many years.[1][4] However, akinetes are not resistant to heat.[1] Akinetes usually develop in strings with each cell differentiating after another and this occurs next to heterocysts if they are present.[1] Development usually occurs during stationary phase and is triggered by unfavorable conditions such as insufficient light or nutrients, temperature, and saline levels in the environment.[1][4] Once conditions become more favorable for growth, the akinete can then germinate back into a vegetative cell.[5] Increased light intensity, nutrients availability, oxygen availability, and changes in salinity are important triggers for germination.[5]
In comparison to vegetative cells, akinetes are generally larger.[4][6] This is associated with the accumulation of nucleic acids which is important for both dormancy and germination of the akinete.[6] Despite being a resting cell, it is still capable of some metabolic activities such as photosynthesis, protein synthesis, and carbon fixation, albeit at significantly lower levels.[3]
Akinetes can remain dormant for extended periods of time. Studies have shown that some species could be cultured that were 18 and 64 years old. [7]
Akinete formation also influences the perennial blooms of cyanobacteria.[8]
^ abcdefAdams, David; Duggan, Paula (Aug 1999). "Heterocyst and akinete differentiation in cyanobacteria". New Phytol. 144: 23–28. doi:10.1046/j.1469-8137.1999.00505.x.
^Moore, R. et al. (1998) Botany. 2nd Ed. WCB/McGraw Hill. ISBN 0-697-28623-1
^ abSukenik, Assaf; Beardall, John; Hadas, Ora (July 2007). "Photosynthetic Characterization of Developing and Mature Akinetes Ofaphanizomenon Ovalisporum(Cyanoprokaryota)1". Journal of Phycology. 43 (4): 780–788. Bibcode:2007JPcgy..43..780S. doi:10.1111/j.1529-8817.2007.00374.x. S2CID 85200692.
^ abcdSukenik, Assaf; Maldener, Iris; Delhaye, Thomas (September 2015). "Carbon assimilation and accumulation of cyanophycin during the development of dormant cells (akinetes) in the cyanobacterium Aphanizomenon ovalisporum". Front. Microbiol. 6: 1067. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2015.01067. PMC 4586427. PMID 26483781.
^ abMyers, Jackie; Beardall, John; Allinson, Graeme (July 2010). "Environmental influences on akinete germination and development in Nodularia spumigena (Cyanobacteriaceae), isolated from the Gippsland Lakes, Victoria, Australia". Hydrobiologia. 649 (1): 239–247. doi:10.1007/s10750-010-0252-5. S2CID 23052084.
^ abSukenik, Assaf; Kaplan-Levy, Ruth; Mark, Jessica (March 2012). "Massive multiplication of genome and ribosomes in dormant cells (akinetes) of Aphanizomenon ovalisporum (Cyanobacteria)". The ISME Journal. 6 (3): 670–679. doi:10.1038/ismej.2011.128. PMC 3280138. PMID 21975597.
^David Livingstone & G.H.M. Jaworski (1980) The viability of akinetes of blue-green algae recovered from the sediments of Rostherne Mere, British Phycological Journal, 15:4, 357-364, DOI: 10.1080/00071618000650361
^
Myers, Jackie; Beardall, John (Aug 2011). "Potential triggers of akinete differentiation in Nodularia spumigena (Cyanobacteriaceae) isolated from Australia". Hydrobiologia. 671 (1): 165. doi:10.1007/s10750-011-0714-4. S2CID 7949386.
An akinete is an enveloped, thick-walled, non-motile, dormant cell formed by filamentous, heterocyst-forming cyanobacteria under the order Nostocales...
converted into thick walled akinetes. Food reserves are accumulated within the akinetes. When the conditions are favourable each akinete develops into a new plant...
heterocyst-forming bacteria can differentiate into spore-like cells called akinetes or motile cells called hormogonia, making them the most phenotyptically...
sexually. Asexual reproduction takes place via fragmentation, cell division, akinete formation, or parthenospores. Sexual reproduction in the Zygnematophyceae...
produced from the parent cells by mitosis. Also by aplanospores, hypnospores, akinetes, Palmella stage, etc. Sexual reproduction of Chlorophyceae is isogamous...
(filaments without sheaths). Each trichome has an akinete as the basal cell near the center of the colony. Akinetes if present are adjacent the heterocyst. The...
morphology and chemistry of endospores, exospores, myxospores, cysts and akinetes in bacteria". Microbiology. 169 (2): 001299. doi:10.1099/mic.0.001299....
unicellular, filamentous cyanobacteria, and some may contain heterocysts and akinetes. Cyanobacteria differentiate into hormogonia when exposed to an environmental...
; de la Torre, R.; Towner, M. C.; Cockell, C. S. (2009). "Survival of Akinetes (Resting-State Cells of Cyanobacteria) in Low Earth Orbit and Simulated...
food reserves. An akinete spore is large, non-motile, and thick walled, the wall of which is fused to that of the parent cell. Akinetes thick cell walls...
appear completely absent in temperatures below 25 °C. Thick walls called akinetes are made out of vegetative cells in times of short photoperiods, low temperatures...
heterocystous cyanobacteria that reproduces by fragmentation and with akinetes. Anabaenopsis can produce microcystins, which are toxic to both humans...
can also asexually reproduce through less commonly known hypnospores, akinetes, heterocysts, endospores, exospores, androspores, neutral spores, carpospores...
absence of combined nitrogen (heterocysts), during unfavorable conditions (akinetes) or to spread and initiate symbiosis (hormogonia). Whereas subsections...
limitation, some of these cells undergo differentiation into heterocysts, akinetes or hormogonia. N. punctiforme is one of the Nostoc strains able to maintain...
also produce a thick walled, cylindrical, spore like structure known as akinetes, which also demonstrate variation in morphology. Some strains of this species...
gliding. This species produces two differentiated cells, heterocysts, and akinetes. Aphanizomenon ovalisporum uses oxygenic photosynthesis, like other cyanobacteria...
2-methylhopanoids localize to the outer membranes of survival structures called akinetes. In another example of stress tolerance, hopanoids in the aerial hyphae...
intensities of UV radiation on photosynthesis.: 181 Reproduction is by akinetes and aplanospores. Recorded world-wide mostly from cold-temperate to polar...
Like all Oscillatoriales, Planktothrix species have no heterocysts and no akinetes. Planktothrix are unique because they have trichomes and contain gas vacuoles...
They reproduce by the formation of hormogonia, filament breakage, and by akinetes . Kruger, T., Oelmuller, R., and Luckas, B. (2009) Comparative PCR analysis...
that form macroscopic colonies in freshwater habitats. The genus produces akinetes and is known to reproduce with hormogonia. The type species for the genus...
terrestrial environments, where it grows in colonies attached to the substrate. Akinetes are not known, and the members of the family are known to reproduce with...
form spore-like cells called akinetes. Akinetes are resistant to low temperature, desiccation, and darkness. Often, akinetes will hibernate in sediment...
than 40 species. Using additional morphological features, such as brown akinetes formation, allows for the differentiation between Coccomyxa and the genus...
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