For information on the colonisation of Africa prior to the 1880s, including Carthaginian and early European colonisation, see Colonisation of Africa. For the book by Thomas Pakenham, see The Scramble for Africa (book).
Areas of Africa controlled by Western European colonial empires in 1913, shown with current national boundaries
Belgium
France
Germany
Italy
Portugal
Spain
United Kingdom
Independent
The Scramble for Africa[a] was the invasion and colonization of most of Africa among seven Western European powers during the era of "New Imperialism" (1833–1914). In 1870, 10% of the continent was formally under European control. By 1914, this figure had risen to almost 90%, with only Liberia and Ethiopia retaining their full sovereignty.[b]
The 1884 Berlin Conference regulated European colonization and trade in Africa, and is seen as emblematic of the "scramble".[2] In the last quarter of the 19th century, there were considerable political rivalries between the European empires, which provided the impetus for the Scramble.[3] The later years of the 19th century saw a transition from "informal imperialism" – military influence and economic dominance – to direct rule.[4]
With the decline of the European colonial empires in the wake of both world wars, most of their African possessions achieved independence during the Cold War. However, the old imperial boundaries and economic systems imposed by the Scramble continue to affect the politics and economies of African countries.[5]
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^Daly, Samuel Fury Childs (4 May 2019). "From Crime to Coercion: Policing Dissent in Abeokuta, Nigeria, 1900–1940". The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History. 47 (3): 474–489. doi:10.1080/03086534.2019.1576833. ISSN 0308-6534. S2CID 159124664.
^Brantlinger 1985, pp. 166–203.
^Robinson, Gallagher & Denny 1961, p. 175.
^Shillington 2005, p. 301.
^Southall & Melber 2009, pp. 41–45.
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