Global InformationAtlantic slave trade information
| Part of a series on |
| Slavery |
|---|
 |
The Atlantic slave trade or transatlantic slave trade involved the transportation by slave traders of enslaved African people, mainly to the Americas. The outfitted European slave ships of the slave trade regularly used the triangular trade route and its Middle Passage, and existed from the 16th to the 19th centuries.[1][2][3] The vast majority of those who were transported in the transatlantic slave trade were from Central and West Africa who had been sold by West African slave traders mainly to Portuguese, British, Spanish, Dutch, and French slave traders,[4][5][6] while others had been captured directly by the slave traders in coastal raids;[7][8] European slave traders gathered and imprisoned the enslaved at forts on the African coast and then brought them to the Americas.[9][10] Except for the Portuguese, European slave traders generally did not participate in the raids because life expectancy for Europeans in sub-Saharan Africa was less than one year during the period of the slave trade (which was prior to the widespread availability of quinine as a treatment for malaria).[5]
The colonial South Atlantic and Caribbean economies were particularly dependent on slave labour for the production of sugarcane and other commodities.[11][12] This was viewed as crucial by those Western European states which were vying with one another to create overseas empires.[13][14] The Portuguese, in the 16th century, were the first to transport slaves across the Atlantic. In 1526, they completed the first transatlantic slave voyage to Brazil, and other Europeans soon followed.[15] Shipowners regarded the slaves as cargo to be transported to the Americas as quickly and cheaply as possible,[13] there to be sold to work on coffee, tobacco, cocoa, sugar, and cotton plantations, gold and silver mines, rice fields, the construction industry, cutting timber for ships, as skilled labour, and as domestic servants.[16] The first enslaved Africans sent to the English colonies were classified as indentured servants, with legal standing similar to that of contract-based workers coming from Britain and Ireland. However, by the middle of the 17th century, slavery had hardened as a racial caste, with African slaves and their future offspring being legally the property of their owners, as children born to slave mothers were also slaves (partus sequitur ventrem). As property, the people were considered merchandise or units of labour, and were sold at markets with other goods and services.[17]
The major Atlantic slave trading nations, in order of trade volume, were Portugal, Britain, Spain, France, the Netherlands, the United States, and Denmark. Several had established outposts on the African coast, where they purchased slaves from local African leaders.[18] These slaves were managed by a factor, who was established on or near the coast to expedite the shipping of slaves to the New World. Slaves were imprisoned in a factory while awaiting shipment. Current estimates are that about 12 million to 12.8 million Africans were shipped across the Atlantic over a span of 400 years.[19][20]: 194 The number purchased by the traders was considerably higher, as the passage had a high death rate, with between 1.2 and 2.4 million dying during the voyage, and millions more in seasoning camps in the Caribbean after arrival in the New World. Millions of people also died as a result of slave raids, wars, and during transport to the coast for sale to European slave traders.[21][22][23][24] Near the beginning of the 19th century, various governments acted to ban the trade, although illegal smuggling still occurred. It was generally thought that the transatlantic slave trade ended in 1867, but evidence was later found of voyages until 1873.[25] In the early 21st century, several governments issued apologies for the transatlantic slave trade.
- ^ "The history of the transatlantic slave trade". National Museums Liverpool. 10 July 2020. Retrieved 26 March 2021.
- ^ "Atlantic Slave Trade". Library of Congress Research Guides. Library of Congress. Retrieved 13 January 2024.
- ^ "Researching Slavery and the Slave Trade". Brown University Library. Brown University. Retrieved 17 January 2024.
- ^ Gates Jr., Henry Louis (April 22, 2010). "Opinion – How to End the Slavery Blame-Game". The New York Times. Archived from the original on April 26, 2010.
- ^ a b Sowell, Thomas (2005). "The Real History of Slavery". Black Rednecks and White Liberals. New York: Encounter Books. p. 121–122. ISBN 978-1-59403-086-4.
- ^ Thornton, p. 112.
- ^ "The transatlantic slave trade". BBC. Retrieved 2021-05-06.
* Some of those enslaved were captured directly by the European slave traders. Enslavers ambushed and captured local people in Africa. Most slave ships used European "factors", men who lived full-time in Africa and bought enslaved people from local leaders.
- ^ "Exchanging People for Trade Goods". African American Heritage and Ethnography. The National Park Service. Retrieved 12 January 2024.
- ^ "Implications of the slave trade for African societies". London: BBC. Retrieved 12 June 2020.
- ^ "West Africa – National Museums Liverpool". Liverpool: International Slavery Museum. Retrieved 14 October 2015.
- ^ "The Rise and Fall of King Sugar" (PDF). National Archives of Trinidad and Tobago. Retrieved 24 January 2024.
- ^ "Sugar Plantations". National Museums LiverPool. Retrieved 24 January 2024.
- ^ a b Mannix, Daniel (1962). Black Cargoes. The Viking Press. pp. Introduction–1–5.
- ^ Ives Bortolot, Alexander. "The Transatlantic Slave Trade". The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Department of Art History and Archaeology, Columbia University. Retrieved 17 January 2024.
- ^ Weber, Greta (June 5, 2015). "Shipwreck Shines Light on Historic Shift in Slave Trade". National Geographic Society. Archived from the original on June 7, 2015. Retrieved June 8, 2015.
- ^ Covey, Herbert C.; Eisnach, Dwight, eds. (2009). "Slave Cooking and Meals – Arrival in the Americas". What the Slaves Ate: Recollections of African American Foods and Foodways from the Slave Narratives. Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood Press. pp. 49–72. ISBN 978-0-313-37497-5. LCCN 2009003907.
- ^ Berlin, Ira (9 April 2012). "The Discovery of the Americas and the Transatlantic Slave Trade". The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History. Retrieved 17 January 2024.
- ^ Klein, Herbert S.; Klein, Jacob (1999). The Atlantic Slave Trade. Cambridge University Press. pp. 103–139.
- ^ Ronald Segal, The Black Diaspora: Five Centuries of the Black Experience Outside Africa (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1995), ISBN 0-374-11396-3, p. 4. "It is now estimated that 11,863,000 slaves were shipped across the Atlantic." (Note in original: Paul E. Lovejoy, "The Impact of the Atlantic Slave Trade on Africa: A Review of the Literature", in Journal of African History 30 (1989), p. 368.)
- ^ Cite error: The named reference
Martinwas invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ Patrick Manning, "The Slave Trade: The Formal Demographics of a Global System" in Joseph E. Inikori and Stanley L. Engerman (eds), The Atlantic Slave Trade: Effects on Economies, Societies and Peoples in Africa, the Americas, and Europe (Duke University Press, 1992), pp. 117–44, online at pp. 119–120.
- ^ Stannard, David. American Holocaust. Oxford University Press, 1993.
- ^ Eltis, David and Richardson, David, "The Numbers Game". In: Northrup, David: The Atlantic Slave Trade, 2nd ed., Houghton Mifflin Co., 2002, p. 95.
- ^ Basil Davidson. The African Slave Trade.
- ^ Cite error: The named reference
albergewas invoked but never defined (see the help page).